1. Chapter 5
Ruben & Stewart (2006)

2. The Communication Iceberg
In human communication, we can only observe three things: people, symbols, and technology (media).

3. The Communication Iceberg
People: Agents of communication.
Symbols: Things that represent something other than themselves.
Technology (Media): Any device that enables symbols to be stored or transported.

4. Invisible Aspects
What is…
Meaning?
Learning?
Subjectivity?

5. Invisible Aspects
Meaning is the significance we attach to symbols. This significance, along with the symbols themselves are…
Arbitrary
Ambiguous
Abstract

6. Invisible Aspects
In addition to instinct or automatic, programmed responses, humans are capable of learning the meaning of symbols and creating new ones.

7. Invisible Aspects
Subjectivity: Our interpretation of symbols is completely dependent upon our “field of experience.” The challenge of communication is to relate a message from one field of experience to another while retaining the same meaning in both.

8. Subjectivity
Since we, as humans, can only ever observe the world subjectively, how can we ever achieve the mutual understanding necessary for successful communication?

9. One solution is “negotiation”

10. Negotiation
Negotiation is the process through which we reconcile the ambiguity of symbols with one another.

11. Culture
Another solution is to share experiences in common. People belonging to the same culture share some experiences in common.

12. Culture
Cultures enable us to share a common set of meanings for common symbols. Repeated use of symbols by groups of people create the illusion that symbols represent reality rather than arbitrary convension.

13. Interacting contexts

14. Self-Reference
Whenever we communicate a message about something we’re communicating a corresponding message about ourselves.

15. Self-Reflexivity
Self-reflexivity is the ability to view ourselves objectively by taking the perspective of an outsider.