1. Chapter 1: The Task of Philosophy Living issues in philosophy
Read this chapter in your textbook, and answer the questions and follow the prompts in this presentation!

2. The meanings of philosophy
Definition of Philosophy from Five Perspectives
The meanings of philosophy

3. Ideas – acquired in a variety of ways ; may be vague and confused
Philosophy of Life
“REFLECTION - thinking things over – is the beginning of philosophy.”
We all have one whether we know it or not.
Ideas about: physical objects, fellow persons, meaning of life, death, God, right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, etc.
Ideas – acquired in a variety of ways ; may be vague and confused
Views and attitudes are acquired from:
1) family
2) friends
3) various individuals and groups
Attitudes are influenced by:
movies, television, music lyrics, books
Attitudes may result from:
some reflection on our part, or conventional and emotional bias

5. SO, philosophy needs to be described more specifically.
Broad, popular, man-in-the-street (common sense) view of philosophy is not adequate (enough) because it:
does not describe the work and task of the philosopher
is vague (not specific), confused (not clear) and superficial (not deep)
SO, philosophy needs to be described more specifically.
WHY IS COMMON SENSE NOT SO COMMON AFTER ALL?
WHY DOESN’T THE RIGHT TO AN OPINION MAKE THE OPINION RIGHT?

6. Definition of philosophy from five perspectives:
Philosophy is:
1) a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held uncritically.
2) a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and beliefs.
3) a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.
4) the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.
5) a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which philosophers always have sought answers.

7. First Meaning Clarification
Informal sense (vs. formal sense)
Having a philosophy, which is more abstract or theoretical (vs. doing philosophy, which is more concrete or practical )
Informal personal attitude or opinion to whatever topic is being discussed
This personal attitude or opinion is not particularly critical in nature.
Criticism (N) / critical (Adj.) / critically (Adv.)
Criticism = objective analysis – of merits (good/right/pros/advantages) and faults (bad/wrong/cons/disadvantages) – and evaluation (the process of discernment) of an issue in order to form a judgment about its value (importance).
Objective vs. Subjective (complete opposites of each other)
Objective Analysis = analysis where personal feelings and opinions do NOT influence a person in their consideration and representation of facts
Subjective Analysis = analysis where personal feelings and opinions DO influence a person in their consideration and representation of facts
Oftentimes, criticism is stifled because it is equated with “negativity”. In order to make an “informed” and objective decision/judgment, one must look at all sides of an issue in a critical manner (whether they – sides of an issue - are being “negative” or “positive”).

8. Second Meaning Clarification
Formal sense (vs. informal sense)
Doing philosophy (vs. having philosophy)
Having an informal philosophy (personal attitude or opinion) is not sufficient (enough) for doing philosophy.
A genuine/real philosophical attitude = searching, critical, open-minded, tolerant and willing to look at all sides (points of view) of an issue without prejudice (former judgments).
To philosophize, one cannot just read and know philosophy from books.
To philosophize, one needs: argumentation skills, analysis techniques, and understanding of philosophical material
Philosophers = reflective + critical ; they review material presented by common sense, think through life’s problems, and face facts involved impartially (equally; without taking sides)
The Accumulation of Knowledge does not by itself lead to Understanding because it does not necessarily teach the Mind to make a Critical Evaluation of Facts that entail/involve Consistent and Coherent Judgment.

9. Comparison of the First Two Definitions
First Meaning of Philosophy
Second Meaning of Philosophy
Informal sense
Having a philosophy
Uncritical
Unreflective
Subjective / Personal
Abstract
Theoretical
Formal sense
Doing philosophy
Critical
Reflective
Objective / Impersonal
Concrete
Practical

10. Why do critical evaluations differ?
Philosophers, theologians (people who “study” God), scientists and many other professionals (engineers, architects, doctors, lawyers, professors, educators, teachers, etc.) disagree because they:
1) view things from different points of view and with different assumptions
a) their personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and training may vary widely
b) this is especially true of people living at different times in different places
2) live in a changing universe
a) people, society and nature changes
b) some people are responsive and sensitive to change while others are holding on to tradition and status quo (older systems that were declared to be authoritative and final)
3) deal with an area of human experience in which the evidence is not complete
a) the evidence that exists may be interpreted in various ways by different people
Despite disagreements, philosophers continue to probe, examine, and evaluate the material with the hope of presenting consistent principles by which we can live.

11. Third Meaning Clarification
Speculative Philosophy (as opposed to Critical Philosophy) seeks to:
1) combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human experience into some kind of consistent world view
2) “take over the results of the various sciences”
3) “add to them [them = the results of the various sciences] the results of the religious and ethical experiences of mankind”
4) “reflect upon the WHOLE.” (C. D. Broad)
Science Results + Religious Results + Ethical Results  Reflection upon the WHOLE of Mankind

12. Fourth Meaning Clarification
The logical analysis of language – Analytic Philosophy - is only ONE function of philosophy.
Those philosophers who consider the logical analysis of language as the main task and the only legitimate function of philosophy also consider philosophy a specialized field serving the sciences rather than a broad field reflecting on all of life’s experiences.
Many linguistic analysts define Knowledge narrowly in the sense that knowledge, according to them, is made up of statements about observable facts and their interrelations.
Analytic Philosophy => the aim of philosophy is to expose confusion and nonsense and to clarify the meaning and use of terms in science and everyday affairs.

13. Fifth Meaning Clarification
Questions of FACT are not philosophical questions.
Fundamental life issues bring up questions such as:
What is Life? Why am I here? Why is there anything at all? What is the place of life in this great universe? Is the universe friendly or unfriendly?
Do things operate by chance or through sheer mechanism, or is there some plan or purpose or intelligence at the heart of things? Is my life controlled by outside forces, or do I have a determining or even a partial degree of control?
Why do people struggle and strive for their rights, for better things in the future? What do concepts like “right” and “justice” mean? What are the marks of a good society?
What are the genuine values of life and how can they be attained? Is there really a fundamental distinction between right and wrong, or is it just a matter of one’s own opinions? What is beauty? Should religion count in a person’s life? Is it intellectually valid to believe in God? Is there a possibility of “life after death?”
Is there any way we can get an answer to these and many related questions? Where does knowledge come from? Can we have any assurances that anything is true?
Theories and Systems of Thought: Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Analytic Philosophy, Existentialism, Phenomenology, Process Philosophy.
Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, Royce, James, Dewey, Whitehead, etc.

15. The Need for Philosophy
We are living in a period of a GREAT SHIFT of human thinking, values, and practices because of technological advancements and the computerized/automation and nuclear age.
20th Century => War of ideas, people, materials, conflicting national interests
Personal and social instability despite these so-called great technological advancements.
Society has a commitment to selfishness and competition rather than to self-interest and cooperation.
The present “civilization” has already been diagnosed with a “disease”/”malaise”, but not really been presented with a “cure” by most critics who could only agree on the fact that it is time for a “change.”
Philosophy through its main branches (metaphysics, epistemology, logic and axiology) is very capable of answering the following questions:
What exactly is this “disease”? What causes this “disease”? In what way can a “cure” eliminate this “disease”? How can this “disease” be prevented from ever coming back?
What are YOUR thoughts on these questions?

16. Traditional branches of philosophy
Philosophical Methodology – Socratic Dialectic
Traditional branches of philosophy

34. What is …

35. What ought to / should be …

41. Socratic Dialectic from Socratic Dialogues
“In Plato's dialogues and other Socratic dialogues, Socrates attempts to examine someone's beliefs, at times even first principles or premises by which we all reason and argue.
Socrates typically argues by cross-examining his interlocutor's claims and premises in order to draw out a contradiction or inconsistency among them.
According to Plato, the rational detection of error amounts to finding the proof of the antithesis.[16] 
However, important as this objective is, the principal aim of Socratic activity seems to be to improve the soul of his interlocutors, by freeing them from unrecognized errors.”(Wikipedia:

42. 1) Ask a question to identify a “Thesis” (“a statement or theory that is put forward to be maintained or proved”).
2) Cross-examine the claims by asking more questions to refine the “thesis”.
3) While cross-examining, find a “contradiction / inconsistency / flaw” (error) in the “Thesis”.
4) This “error” is proof of “Antithesis” (“the opposite of thesis”).
5) Work together to find the Truth from these two Opposing Ideas – Thesis and Antithesis.
6) Free one’s soul of unrecognized errors.

43. Question (Q): What is Life?
Answer (A): Life is “the condition that distinguishes animals and plants from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, reproduction, functional activity, and continual change preceding death.”
Q: Do you see the flaw in the following description: “Origin of Biological Life”?
A: No, I don’t.
Q: What does Biological mean to you?
A: I just explained to you what it means.
Q: Okay. According to your definition, Life is only Biological, correct?
A: Yes.
Q: If this is true, then why do you use the word Biological?
A: Because I just explained it to you. Life does not include inorganic or non-biological entities.
Q: Yes, according to your definition that’s what Life is; however, IF there is Biological Life, there is also Non-Biological Life as per Thesis/Antithesis. If this is true, then Life cannot be called Biological because then the opposite would have to be implied, Non-Biological. Either that, or Life is truly Biological AND Non-Biological. Now, we have to work together to find the TRUTH – a Synthesis.

48. 1. Philosophy as Inescapable
EVERYBODY has SOME:
Notion of Reality (Metaphysics): origin, destiny, fabric of existence, God, human nature
Notion of Knowledge (Epistemology and Logic): authentic sources of knowledge; subjective beliefs vs. objective truths; methods that prove a conclusion true or false
Notion of Values (Axiology): Right or Wrong
Philosophy is not just theoretical and part of the classroom; it is practical because issues of metaphysics, epistemology, values and logic are part of everyday living.

49. 2. The study of philosophy helps people make informed choices.

50. 3a. Specific Personal Uses
According to the author, about 45% of American college freshmen in 1993 considered “developing a philosophy of life” essential or at least important.
MORE important than developing a philosophy of life were the following objectives in ascending (bottom-up) order (as listed by the author in the text):
4) helping others who are in difficulty
3) becoming an authority in one’s field
2) raising a family
1) being very well-off financially
In descending (top-down) order, these same objectives would be listed by the author starting with number 1 and finishing with number 4.
Therefore, “being well-off financially” was considered as the most important objective.
What do you think about the importance of these same objectives in today’s world? Would freshmen choose them in the same order or differently?
What do the adjacent bar graphs tell us about the true importance and power of philosophy?

51. “We wonder whether the responses were based on a clear understanding of the nature of values and the possible meanings of “developing a philosophy of life.”
Were the surveyed students aware of the meanings, branches, and tools of philosophy?
Had they any notion of the benefits of choosing adequate views of reality and maintaining a coherent, consistent world view?
We propose that a mature person’s philosophic beliefs are well established; such a man or a woman is well integrated, and sustains a harmony between thought and action that is indispensable to his or her well-being.”
According to the author, what is extremely important for the well-being of a male or female human being?
Also, how and why is wisdom extremely important for one’s life?

52. 3b. Specific Vocational Uses
Business Ethics
Medical / Health Care Ethics
Applied Philosophy (specifically Ethics) in every occupation

53. What is the goal of a corporation?
Business Ethics
What is the goal of a corporation?
What are the ethics of “whistle-blowing”?
What is fair in competition?
How can conflicts of profit making be resolved with the good of the environment?
Should we demand truth telling in advertising?
How should we view:
job discrimination,
affirmative-action hiring practices,
respective rights of employers and employees,
social responsibilities of business,
responsibilities of business to the consumer,
the role of government in business, etc.?

54. Medical Ethics
Reproductive technologies: in-vitro fertilization (test-tube babies), surrogate mother
Allowing or helping chronically and terminally ill patients to die with dignity: euthanasia
Suicide
Patients’ rights
Genetic engineering: cloning or DNA transformation
Public health: vaccines, medical drugs, etc.

55. SOURCE: Nolan, Richard T. , and Frank G. Kirkpatrick
SOURCE: Nolan, Richard T., and Frank G. Kirkpatrick. "Contemporary Ethical Principles." Living Issues in Ethics. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., Print. Retrieved from the internet from

67. What do you think the parties involved should do next?
SOURCE: Nolan, Richard T., and Frank G. Kirkpatrick. "Contemporary Ethical Principles." Living Issues in Ethics. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub., Print. Retrieved from the internet from
The paragraph below describes how to solve moral conflicts. First, the most highly valued principles/morals should be identified. If there are disagreements about which morals are most highly valued and a standstill is achieved, then there should be an agreement to differ.
What do you think the parties involved should do next?

70. Philosophy Today 1) Nature and role of philosophy
2) Discussion of the terms, the structure and uses of language through which thoughts are expressed
Study of instruments (logic, semantics, linguistic analysis) needs to be substituted with the study of the basic problems (everyday human situations) or the perennial problems of philosophy.
Philosophers are now working with hospitals, business, and industry to help solve the problems of health care delivery and corporate/business communities. They are professionals, and they get paid for being specialists in the area of ideas.
In the 1980s, philosophy began to be concerned with:
1) nontraditional fields – brain research, cognitive science, artificial intelligence (A.I.)
2) new issues – animal rights, defining life and death, establishing the nature and role of technology in modern thought, experimentation with human subjects
3) raising philosophical questions in relation to: outer space, gender issues, sports, violence, social norms and the environment
Applied Philosophy vs. Linguistic Analysis (Analytic Philosophy): The authors of this textbook stress the need to APPLY philosophy to many areas of human activity and not just to breaking down language.
This textbook views philosophy as a process for people to reflect upon and criticize their most deeply held beliefs, and that the activity of philosophy belongs to all thinking persons from all walks of life.

74. Problem solving through philosophical techniques
Social and Personal Problems
Problem solving through philosophical techniques

82. Most Pressing Moral Issues
Moral dilemmas

88. Go to Meaning of Life
Read up to Religious Perspectives very carefully and take notes before attending class, so you can be better prepared during the class.
SOURCE: Meaning of Life. Retrieved from the internet from