1. Lecture 5 Information in biostatistics. “Health for all”. Software for statistical research

4. Randomization is the process of making something random; this means: n Generating a random permutation of a sequence (such as when shuffling cards). n Selecting a random sample of a population (important in statistical sampling). n Generating random numbers: see Random number generation. n Transforming a data stream using a scrambler in telecommunications. Randomization

7. Randomization is used extensively in the field of gambling (or generally being random). Imperfect randomization may allow a skilled gambler to have an advantage, so much research has been devoted to effective randomization. A classic example of randomization is shuffling playing cards. Other uses of randomization

10. Randomization is a core principle in the statistical theory of design of experiments. Its use was extensively promoted by R.A. Fisher in his book Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Randomization involves randomly allocating the experimental units across the treatment groups. Thus, if the experiment compares a new drug against a standard drug used as a control, the patients should be allocated to new drug or control by a random process. Other uses of randomization

13. Although historically "manual" randomization techniques (such as shuffling cards, drawing pieces of paper from a bag, spinning a roulette wheel) were common, nowadays automated techniques are mostly used. As both selecting random samples and random permutations can be reduced to simply selecting random numbers, random number generation methods are now most commonly used, both hardware random number generators and pseudo- random number generators. Randomization Techniques

15. Stratification is the building up of layers, and can have several meanings Social stratification, is the dividing of a society into levels based on wealth or power. Stratification in archaeology is the formation of layers (strata) in which objects are found. Stratification of rock layers (strata) is part of the geologic field of Stratigraphy. Stratification

17. Stratification (botany), where seeds are pretreated to simulate winter conditions so that germination may occur. In logic, stratification is a layering of predicate symbols to guarantee unique interpretations and to avoid paradoxical definitions like Russell's paradox. In mathematics, Stratification has a separate meaning as applied to manifolds, and singularity theory, of a decomposition into pieces with specified relationships on fitting together. Stratification

19. In music stratification is a layering of musical texture or the independent operating of more than one parameter simultaneously (see auditory stream). In meteorology, atmospheric stratification is the division of the atmosphere into distinct layers, each with specific properties such as temperature or humidity. In histology, stratified epithelium refers to epithelium that consists of two or more layers of epithelial cells, in contrast to simple epithelium, which only has one layer. Stratification

21. n It is an internationally recognised structure which enables those working to improve the health of local communities and apply Health for All principles, to meet and share information, research and experiences. n The Network was established in 1987. It currently receives a grant from the Department of Health (England). n In 1995 the Network became a Company Limited by Guarantee in order to affiliate formally to the World Health Organisation and other networks. In 1997 the Network became a registered UK charity. “HEALTH FOR ALL”

23. The Network was established as part of the World Health Organisation's "Health for All 2000" initiative, which was launched in 1981 in Europe. This strategy was based on three key principles of n Equity n Community Participation n Intersectoral Collaboration n and more recently, Sustainable Development. Action in Europe began in 1987 with the launch of the Healthy Cities Network. In 1998, Health for All 2000 was revised and relaunched as Health 21, providing a strategy for the 21st century. “HEALTH FOR ALL”

25. The Health for All Network is a structure through which staff and members of intersectoral partnerships, individual agencies and individuals working to reduce inequalities in health can: n Exchange information and ideas n Identify good practice n Comment collectively on policy issues n Contribute to local, national and intersectoral debates on health improvement n Promote their local work nationally n Market locally developed resources “HEALTH FOR ALL”

27. Secondly, it is a supportive mechanism for members which: n Co-ordinates a national database n Publishes a quarterly newsletter n Holds an annual conference n Supports regional meetings n Encourages and supports joint training n Publishes resources n Provides speakers and workshops at national conferences. “HEALTH FOR ALL”

29. "Health for All in Action" provides a review of activity in the UK. It describes the different structures that have formed since 1987 to tackle the overriding target of the WHO Health for All Strategy (Ottawa Charter, 1986), recently revised as Health 21, ( WHO, 1998) to reduce inequalities in health. This review underlines the fact that there is no single way to implement Health for All at a local level. Just as communities are diverse, so too are local Health for All initiatives. Projects, initiatives and alliances in the UK have, therefore, followed different paths to achieve their objectives; and adopted different strategies and organisational structures. “HEALTH FOR ALL”