1. 1 What is Language (Slides 1-16) The Innateness Hypothesis (slides 16-48) By Don L. F. Nilsen

2. 2 LANGUAGE PLAY & MAPPING The primary function of language is not to communicate, but is rather to think creatively or analogically. Language play allows humans to map an infinite number of real-world details onto a small finite number of sounds, letters and words. (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 3)

3. 3 And the exciting thing is that this mapping happens not only for the infinite details of the real world, but of all possible worlds whether real, discovered, invented, postulated, fictionalized, or imagined.

4. 4 THE CONTINUITY PARADOX Derek Bickerton states it as follows: “Until we cease to regard language as primarily communicative and begin to treat it as primarily representational, we cannot hope to escape from the Continuity Paradox” (Bickerton 689).

5. 5 FORM-MEANING CORRELATION CONTRAST SOUNDS, SPELLINGS AND MEANINGS: Antonyms: tall vs. short Converses: buy vs. sell Cognates: embarrassed vs. embarazada Heteronyms: minute vs. minute Homographs: bank vs. bank Homonyms: Homographs or Homophones Homophones: too vs. two vs. to Hyponyms: metaphor vs. metaphor Synonyms: big vs. large (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 214)

6. 6 WORD-LEVEL VS. SENTENCE-LEVEL GRAMMAR LEXICAL:SYNTACTIC: AMBIGUITY:Take your pick!Call me a taxi! ANOMALY:She wanted a gnepf. John me cow a gave. PARAPHRASE: William hit a policeman.Bill hit John. vs. Bill slugged a cop. vs. John was hit by Bill.

7. 7 WHAT A GRAMMAR MUST DEAL WITH Analysis vs. Synthesis: Parsing vs. Generative Grammar Denotation vs. Connotation: Pro-Choice vs. Pro-Life views of “abortion” Systematic vs. Accidental Gaps: “schplick” vs. “blick”

8. 8 FORM VS. MEANING Linguistics is concerned with the mapping of meaning onto form (decoding) and form onto meaning (encoding). The form is the surface structure (phonology, graphology, morphology and syntax) The meaning is the deep structure (semantics, pragmatics, discourse) (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 7)

9. 9 LEVELS OF ADEQUACY Prescriptive Adequacy: What people should do Descriptive Adequacy: What people do do Explanatory Adequacy: Patterns, Trends, and Predictions Evaluative Adequacy: Based on Elegance Simplicity Completeness Internal Consistency Generative Power (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 13-17)

10. 10 SURFACE STRUCTURE SyntaxAllotagTagmeme MorphologyAllomorphMorpheme GraphologyAllographGrapheme PhonologyAllophonePhoneme

11. 11 DEEP STRUCTURE Pragmatics (Context, Deictics, Anaphora, Speech Acts, Conversational Implicatures, Intent, Felicity Conditions) PragmaticsAllobehaviorBehavioreme SemanticsAllosemeSememe

12. 12 EVOLUTION During the past five million years, “our forebears became predominantly right-handed, made use of increasingly sophisticated tools, and organized their culture in ever more complex ways.” This evolution resulted in “a puny, almost hairless animal, with a bent windpipe that reduced breathing efficiency to nearly half of its original capacity. The creature’s teeth were practically useless for chewing.” But we had an asymetrical brain with the left hemisphere being efficient at learning language. (Heny 634).

13. 13 M. A. K. Halliday’s 7 Functions of Language: Instrumental: To get things done Regulatory: To control other people Interactional: To define groups and relationships Personal: To express feelings and beliefs Heuristic:To test hypotheses or to learn Imaginative: To create a world Representational: To give information (Clark, 52)

14. 14 In terms of language, Who’s in charge? “We make language more than language makes us” (Clark, 55). What did Humpty Dumpty say about language?

15. 15 Poem by Maurice Evan Hare There once was a man who said, “Damn!” It is born in upon me I am An engine that moves In predestinate grooves, I’m not even a bus; I’m a tram. --Aitchison 560

16. 16 THE INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS Noam Chomsky claims that language is innate. B. F. Skinner claims that language is learned; it is basically a stimulus- response mechanism.

17. 17 Noam Chomsky reviewed B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior in Language, the journal of the Linguistic Society of America and convincingly presented twelve types of evidence that language is basically innate, not learned.

18. 18 1.Language is very complex. Consider the complexity of any complete English grammar book. 2. The model for language learning is imperfect. Mothers use caregiver language; friends use baby talk; children use modified grammar (holophrastic, pivot-open, or telegraphic). 3. All humans learn a spoken language (NOTE: Chomsky does not claim that written language is innate). (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 28-29)

19. 19 4. No animals learn a human-type language. However, some animal languages are impressive: primates (Vikki-Hayes, Koko-Patterson, Warshow- Gardners, Lana, Nim Chimsky-Terrace, Sarah- Thomas/Church) bees (Von Frisch) dolphins (Lilly) birds, parrots and cockatiels canines equines bovines felines ants (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 21-25, 28-29)

20. 20 ANIMAL MESSAGES: Come. Go. Food. Protection (camouflage, assistance, misleading enemies…). Sex. Territory, Dominance, Mimic, Defiance, Friendship, Attention ANIMAL LANGUAGE: Calls. Body Coloring and Shape. Tail Slap, Facial Expression. Tail Wagging, Baring Throat, Dancing (Round, Tail-wagging, Sickle), Whistling, Chuttering, Attacking, Singing, Giving Off Pheromones HUMAN-LANGUAGES AMONG ANIMALS: AMESLAN, Yerkish, Computers, Magnetic Chips, “Sugar Fruit,” “Finger Bracelet” 2nd-Generation Language (Planet of the Apes)

21. 21 WASHOW SIGNING “TICKLE” (KEMP AND SMITH 671) WASHOW SIGNING “TICKLE” (KEMP AND SMITH 671) 671)

22. 22 AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: CONFIGURATION (Emmorey 82) (cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 7, 19-21)

23. 23 AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: PLACE (Emmorey 82) (cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 7, 19-21)

24. 24 AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE: MOVEMENT (Emmorey 82) (cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 7, 19-21)

25. 25 BEES’ ROUND DANCE (Kemp & Smith 663)

26. 26 BEES’ TAIL-WAGGING DANCE (Kemp and Smith 664)

27. 27 SARAH’S SYMBOLS (Kemp and Smith 672)

28. 28 YERKISH LEXIGRAMS (Kemp and Smith 672)

29. 29 5. There are many human-language universals, and these are only a small subset of semiotic possibilities; computer languages don’t have these same natural-language constraints (embedding, cross-over, A over A, etc.). (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 17-18) 6. There is a critical age for foreign-language acquisition (around puberty). 7. There is a sequence in language acquisition (holophrastic, pivot-open, telegraphic, adult). Note also color acquisition in both phylogeny and ontogeny. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 28-29)

30. 30 8. Human language is rule-governed (like mathematics). It is not memorized. 9. Human language is very creative. Except for small-talk, almost all sentences are novel. Language can adjust to new situations (unlike bee-language for unexpected placing of honey source). (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 28-29)

31. 31 10. Human language has duality. A limited number of symbols are reused in many different ways. 11. Human language has displacement in Time, Place, and Truth. 12. Human language is not predictable. Given a particular stimulus, there is a much wider range of responses for humans than for animals. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 28-29)

32. 32 CONCLUSION The most important of Chomsky’s observations is that “Language is Creative.” Language should not be prescribed, as that would limit its creativity. Rather, language should be allowed to adapt to social situations. In other word language VARIES in the following ways:

33. 33 LANGUAGE VARIATION V-Vocational Differences A-Age Differences –Individual (holophrastic vs. adult language) –Language (Old English vs. Modern English) R-Regional Differences I-Informality Differences E-Ethnic Differences S-Sex Differences

34. 34 METAPHOR, METONYMY, SYNECDOCHE, IRONY AND LANGUAGE PLAY The most creative aspect of language is its ability to adapt to new situations, and it does this by using the “Master Tropes”: Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony.

35. 35 HOMO ERECTUS, HOMO SAPIENS, HOMO LOQUENS AND HOMO RIDENS Humans have been called “homo erectus” because like primates, kangaroos and chickens they stand erect. They have been called “homo sapiens” because they are the thinking animal. They have been called “home loquens” because they are the talking animal. But they have been called “homo ridens” because they are the only animal that laughs appropriately.

36. 36 LANGUAGE FOR ENGAGEMENT LANGUAGE FOR TRANSCENDENCE Language is a tool that allows us to deal with the real world. It allows us to solve the problems of the real world. It helps us survive. But as we spend less and less time working to survive and more and more time thinking and pondering, our language needs to meet these new needs.

37. 37 Exercise 2: *Ungrammatical A. Robin forced the sherrif go. B. Napoleon forced Josephine to go. C. The devil made Faust go. D. He passed by a large pile of money. E. He came by a large sum of money F. He came a large sum of money by. G. Did in a corner little Jack Horner sit? H. Elizabeth is resembled by Charles I. Nancy is eager to please.

38. 38 J. It is easy to frighten Emily. K. It is eager to love a kitten. L. That birds can fly amazes. M. The fact you are late to class is surprising. N. Has the nurse slept the baby yet? O. I was surprised for you to get married. P. I wonder who and Mary went swimming. Q. Myself bit John. R. What did Alice eat the toadstool with? S. What did Alice eat the toadstool and?

39. 39 Exercise 3: Onomatopoeia Animals across languages: CowsHorsesPigs ChickensRoostersChicks LionsTigersGoat CatsDogsTurkeys GeesePigeonsSheep PigsFrogsDonkeys HensCrowsFlies

40. 40 Exercise 3: Sound Symbolism Bang Beep Bubble Buzz Clap Click Crackle Crunch Gong Groan Gurgle Hiss Kerplop Screech Sigh Slap Slurp Smack Smash Snap Swish Thump Tinkle Whiz Zing Snap crackle & pop

41. 41 Exercise 3: Reduplication Children Bowwow Dada Dingdong Doodoo Mama Peepee Weewee Adults: Hanky Panky Ticktock Tooty Fruity Zig Zag Zsa Other Examples:

42. 42 Exercise 4: Iconicity & Paralanguage I II III IV X 1 2 3 0 ١ ٢ ٣ ٠ * . ? ! $ Shhh! Shush! Hiss Tsk tsk Uh Huh! (yes) Uh uh (no) Huh? Giddyup (lateral click) Raspberry (Bronx Cheer) Uchhhhh Yuchhhhh Wolf Whistle Swearing (*^&%+#@!)

43. 43 Exercise 12: Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw “The rain in Spain is mainly on the plain.” “In Heartford, Herriford and Hartshire, hurricanes hardly ever happen.” “Look at her—a prisoner of the gutters; –Condemned by ev’ry syllable she utters. –By right she should be taken out and hung –For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue!” (Pygmalion, 109)

44. 44 My Fair Lady by Lerner and Lowe An Englishman’s way of speaking absolutely classifies him. The moment he talks he makes some other English despise him, One common language I’m afraid we’ll never get. Oh, why can’t the English learn to Set a good example to people whose English is painful to your ears? The Scots and the Irish leave you close to tears. There even are places, where English completely disappears. In America, they haven’t used it for years! (110)

45. 45 Exercise 13: English Only vs. Bilingualism Discuss Queen Elizabeth I’s outlawing of Celtic dress, music and traditions King James Translation of the Bible into English to unite England with Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland by an English-Only movement What about the English-only movement today vs. bilingualism?