1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 47

2. 2 Invitational Office Hour Invitations, by Student Number for February 11 th 11:30-1:30 Kenny 2517 13184072 14297071 21395090 65351082 70133087 90119074

3. 3 Reminder I will hold additional office hours in preparation for the February exam: Tuesday, February 8: 11:00-12:30 Wednesday, February 9: 1:00-3:00 Friday, February 11: 11:30-1:30 Please note that my afternoon office hours (3:30-4:30) on Friday, February 11 th, are cancelled this week.

4. 4 Midterm Exam February 21: 30 multiple choice questions (1 point each). February 23: 5-6 short answer questions (2-8 points each, totaling 20 points). The exam is worth 20% of your final grade. The exam will be scored out of 50 points.

5. 5 Please arrive on time to facilitate rapid distribution of the exams. Bring a pencil, eraser, pen, and your student ID to the exam. All electronic devices must be put away before the start of the exam. Bags and backpacks should be left at the front of the room. Please do not bring valuables to the exam. Hats (e.g., baseball caps) should not be worn during the exam.

6. 6 Careers and Work: 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? (continued) 2. Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction?

7. 7 2. discuss sex differences in work-place negotiations. 1. distinguish between supply-side theory and demand side-theory. By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 3. define the term “maternal wall.” 4. discuss factors that contribute to job satisfaction among females who are discriminated against in the workplace.

8. 8  Two theories have been proposed to account for pay discrepancies across the sexes: What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace?

9. 9 (a) Supply-Side Theory (Human Capital Theory) Maintains that the characteristics of males and females account for pay inequities. Examples of characteristics of males and females (i.e., “supply-side characteristics”) that may contribute to pay inequities:

10. 10 Number of hours worked. Occupational experience. Occupational choice: Within occupations, however, females are paid less than males. Educational background: Today, however, females earn more university degrees than males.

11. 11 Negotiation of salary: Females are less likely than males to engage in salary negotiation (Walters et al., 1998). Gerhart and Rynes (1991) found that males’ negotiations led to a 4.3% yearly salary increase, whereas females’ negotiations led to a 2.7% yearly salary increase:

12. 12 Salary (Thousands of Dollars) Projected Salary of a Male and Female Over the Ages of 25 to 65 with a 4.3% and 2.7% Salary Increase Per Year, Respectively Age

13. 13 Females are less likely to engage in salary negotiation than males because: they are more likely to feel unsure of themselves, to believe that they do not deserve to be paid more than others, to believe that conflict will jeopardize the negotiation relationship, to believe in meritocracy, and to experience anxiety during the negotiation (Barron, 2003).

14. 14 (b) Demand-Side Theory Maintains that discrimination accounts for pay inequities. Examples of discrimination shown by employers: Some employers pay females less than males because they believe that females are less likely to relocate due to their “family ties” (Helgeson, 2009).

15. 15 Some employers pay mothers less than fathers because they believe that mothers are the primary caregivers of their families and, thus, cannot be as productive as their male counterparts. This is known as the “maternal wall” or “motherhood penalty.” Several lines of evidence point to a maternal wall:

16. 16 1. Employed mothers are perceived as less competent than individuals without children (Cuddy et al., 2004). 2. Employed mothers are perceived as less competent and committed than employed fathers (Correll et al., 2007; Heilman & Okimoto, 2008).

17. 17 5. Sex differences in pay are larger for couples with children than couples without children: 4. Respondents indicate a preference to promote and train a woman without a child than a woman with a child, but a preference to promote and train a man with a child than a man without a child. 3. Respondents set more stringent hiring standards for women with children than women without children, but more lenient hiring standards for men with children than men without children.

18. 18 69% 77% 63% Weekly Earnings Percent Pay Gap As a Function of Parental Status (Dey & Hill, 2007)

19. 19 “Motherhood is now the single greatest obstacle left in the path to economic equality for women” (Crittenden, 2001). In her book The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World Is Still the Least Valued, Crittenden (2001) states:

20. 20 Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction? Although females are more likely than males to encounter discrimination in the workplace, research reveals no sex differences in overall job satisfaction (Crosby, 1984; Martinez, 2005). Factors that may account for this finding include the following:

21. 21 (b) females report receiving greater social support in the workplace than males. (c) females, like members of other disadvantaged groups, tend to deny personal experiences of discrimination: (a) as noted already, females have lower salary expectations than males.

22. 22 Crosby (1984)  Found that female participants received between $5,000 and $8,000 less than their male counterparts, demonstrating widespread treatment discrimination against the females surveyed.  Matched male and female participants on prestige of job, education, job experience, number of hours worked, age, and marital status (i.e., supply-side characteristics).

23. 23  Nevertheless, females did not report less job satisfaction or more grievances than males.  Moreover, although the vast majority of females agreed with the statement “Are women discriminated against?”, the vast majority of females disagreed with the statement “Are you at present the victim of sex discrimination.”  Thus, although the female participants recognized that women are subject to discrimination, they denied the personal experience of discrimination.

24. 24 Careers and Work: 1. What forms of discrimination are encountered in the workplace? (continued) 2. Do females and males experience similar levels of job satisfaction?