1. Earth Science & Methods of Science

2. Biblical Reference In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Genesis 1:1

3. What is Earth Science? The study of the Earth and how it interacts with itself and the Universe around it.

4. Branches of Earth Science The field of Earth Science can be broken into four major areas: astronomy, meteorology, geology, and oceanography.

5. Astronomy Astronomy is the study of objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere. –Astronomers study the universe and everything in it, including Earth, its neighbors, and other bodies in the universe.

6. Meteorology Meteorology is the study of the air that surrounds our planet. –Meteorologists study the forces and processes that cause the atmosphere to change to produce weather. –They also try to predict the weather and how changes in weather might affect Earth’s climate.

7. Geology Geology is the study of the materials that make up Earth and the processes that form and change these materials. –Geologists identify rocks, study glacial movements, interpret clues to Earth’s 4.6 billion-year history, and determine how forces change our planet.

8. Oceanography Oceanography is the study of Earth’s oceans, which cover nearly three-fourths of the planet. –Oceanographers study the creatures that inhabit salty water, measure different physical and chemical properties of the oceans, and observe various processes in these bodies of water.

9. Sub-Specialties The study of our planet is a broad endeavor, and it requires a variety of sub-specialties of the four major areas of Earth Science.

10. Sub-Specialties

11. Earth’s Systems Scientists who study Earth have identified four main Earth systems. Atmosphere Lithosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere

12. Lithosphere Earth’s lithosphere is the rigid outer shell of the planet and includes the crust and the solid, uppermost part of the layer below the crust, the mantle. –There are two kinds of crust: continental crust, made mostly of granite, and oceanic crust which is primarily basalt.

13. Lithosphere Some of Earth’s upper mantle behaves like a rigid solid while other parts of this layer are partially molten and flow like a soft plastic. –This partially molten layer of the mantle is the asthenosphere. Beneath Earth’s mantle is the core, which can be divided into two parts: an outer, liquid part and a solid, inner part. –Earth’s core and asthenosphere are not parts of the lithosphere but they do interact with it.

14. Hydrosphere The hydrosphere consists of the water in Earth’s oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and glaciers, as well as the water in the atmosphere. –About 97 percent of Earth’s water exists as salt water; the remaining 3 percent is freshwater contained in glaciers, in lakes and rivers, and beneath Earth’s surface as groundwater.

15. Hydrosphere

16. Atmosphere The atmosphere is the blanket of gases that surrounds our planet. –Earth’s atmosphere is necessary for respiration by most living things, protects Earth’s inhabitants from harmful radiation from the Sun, and helps to keep the planet at a temperature suitable for life.

17. Biosphere The biosphere includes all organisms on Earth as well as the environments in which they live. –With a few exceptions, most organisms exist within a few meters of Earth’s surface. −You and the billions of other life-forms that live on Earth are part of the biosphere.

18. Technology The study of science, including Earth Science, has led to the discovery of many things that you use every day. The application of scientific discoveries is called technology. –Technology is transferable, which means that it can be applied to new situations. –Many technologies were transferred from the Space Program. –Can you name some of them?

19. Why Earth Science?

20. Pop Quiz Match the following terms with their definitions. ___ geology ___ oceanography ___ meteorology ___ astronomy A.the study of objects beyond Earth’s atmosphere B.the study of the air that surrounds Earth C.the study of the materials that make up Earth and the processes that form and change these materials D.the study of Earth’s oceans C D B A

21. Pop Quiz _____________ Earthquakes along the San Andreas fault _____________ Effects of climatic change on dinosaurs _____________ Water flow into the Ogallala aquifer _____________ The effects of logging on the Spotted Owl _____________ Long term weather patterns in New England Which subspecialties of Earth science would apply to the following subjects? Tectonics Paleontology Hydrology Ecology Climatology

22. Pop Quiz ______The asthenosphere is part of the lithosphere. ______You are part of the biosphere. ______Less than 5% of Earth’s water is fresh water. ______The Earth’s biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere are independent systems. Identify whether the following statements are true or false. false true false

23. 1.2 Methods of Science

24. Biblical Reference Great are the works of the Lord, studied by all who delight in them.. Psalm 111:2

25. The Scientific Method The scientific method is a planned, organized approach to solving a problem.

26. Ask Questions Asking a question is often the first step in using scientific methods. Asking a question usually results from making many observations, using one of more of the five senses.

27. Form a Hypothesis After scientists ask a question, their next step is usually to form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible explanation or answer to a question. A good hypothesis is a testable idea that leads to scientific investigation. A prediction is a statement of what will happen next in a sequence of events

28. Test the Hypothesis After scientists form a hypothesis, they usually test the hypothesis to find out if it is a reasonable answer to their question. If the prediction is not confirmed, the hypothesis might need revision

29. Experimentation A good scientific experiment tests only one variable, or changeable factor, at a time. –The independent variable in an experiment is the factor that is manipulated by the experimenter. –A dependent variable is a factor that can change if the independent variable is changed. –A control is used to show that the results of an experiment are a result of the condition being tested.

30. Safety When conducting any scientific investigation, it is important to use all materials and equipment only as instructed. –Follow the safety rules listed the lab safety contract to help prevent injury to you and others in the lab as well as make you aware of possible hazards in a science lab.

31. Organize and Analyze Data Analyzing results using tables and graphs helps scientists understand relationships between the data.

32. Organize and Analyze Data Scientists must determine whether inferences or conclusions can be made from the data. –An inference is a logical explanation of an observation that is drawn from prior knowledge or experience. Analyzing data from repeated tests can help scientists determine if their data are accurate and reproducible. –Data are reproducible when you get similar data from many tests. If the hypothesis is not supported, it may have to be modified.

33. Draw Conclusions After scientists analyze results, they draw conclusions about whether their hypothesis was supported. Valid conclusions can only be obtained with reproducible data. –Data are considered reproducible when scientists get similar data from many repeated tests. –Reproducible data helps scientists make sure that the results of their experiment were not an accident

34. Communicate the Results After drawing conclusions, scientists often communicate their results. When scientists communicate their results, it allows others to continue the investigation. Results can be communicated through scientific papers, presentations, and the Internet.

35. Measurement The Le Système International d’Unités (SI) is an internationally accepted system for measurement. All SI units are derived from seven base units.

36. SI Prefixes A prefix can be added to a base unit’s name to indicate either a fraction or a multiple of that base unit. Prefixes are based on powers of ten, such as 0.01 and 100.

37. Length The standard SI unit to measure length is the meter (m). –The meter is divided into 100 equal parts called centimeters (cm). –The centimeter is divided into 10 equal parts called millimeters (mm). –Long distances are measured in kilometers (km) which is 1,000 m.

38. Weight and Mass Weight is a measure of the gravitational force on an object. –Weight varies with location depending on gravitational force. –Weight is a force, and the SI unit for force is the newton (N). Mass is the amount of matter in an object. –The mass of an object, unlike weight, does not change with an object’s position. –The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).

39. Area Area is the amount of surface included within a set of boundaries and is expressed in square units of length, such as square meters (m 2 ). –For example, the area of a rectangle with a length of 5 m and a width of 2 m is: 5 m 2 m

40. Volume The amount of space occupied by an object is the object’s volume. The SI units for volume are derived from the SI units used to measure length. –The basic SI unit of volume for a regularly shaped, solid object is the cubic meter (m 3 ). –SI measurements for liquid volumes are usually made in milliliters (mL) or liters (L).

41. Density Density is a measure of the amount of matter that occupies a given space. –Density is calculated by dividing the mass of the matter by its volume. –The SI unit for density is kg/m 3. –An object with a mass of 100 kg and a volume of 20 m 3 has a density of:

42. Time Time is the interval between two events and is usually measured with a watch or clock. –The SI unit of time is the second (s).

43. Temperature Temperature is a measure of the average motion of particles that make up an object. A mass made up of particles that vibrate quickly has a higher temperature than a mass whose particles vibrate more slowly. Temperature is measured in degrees with a thermometer. –In science, temperature is often measured on the Celsius (C) scale. –In SI, temperature is measured on the Kelvin (K) scale.

44. Converting Among SI Units To convert from one SI unit to another either multiply or divide by a factor of 10. Example: Convert a driving distance of 8,975 m into km.

45. Accuracy vs. Precision For a single measurement: Accuracy - An indication of how close a measurement is to the accepted value Precision - An indication of the degree of exactness of a measurement For multiple measurements: Accuracy - An indication of how close the average measurement is to the accepted value Precision - An indication of the agreement among a number of similar measurements

47. The data taken by student A are more accurate because each value is close to the accepted value. The data taken by student C are more precise because the data are similar.

48. Percent Error The expression of error as a percentage of the accepted value.

49. Percent Error

50. Measurement & Accuracy All measurements have some uncertainty. The tools used to make measurements limit the accuracy of the measurements.

51. Significant Digits Significant digits are the number of digits in a measurement that are known with a certain degree of reliability. The significant digits in a measurement include all digits you know for certain plus one estimated digit.

53. Rounding Rules If the last number is less than 5, round down. If the last number is 5 or greater, round up. Examples: 6.14 rounded to the nearest tenth is 6.1 6.145 rounded to the nearest hundredth is 6.15

54. Mathematical Operations Rounding with Addition and Subtraction –Round to the least number of decimal places Example: 6.7 + 4.321 = 11.0 Rounding with Multiplication and Division –Round to the same number of significant figures as the measurement with the least number of significant figures Example: 540. g / 62 ml = 8.7 g/ml

55. Scientific Notation A method of writing or displaying very small or very large numbers in a short form. Examples: –The U.S. has a total of 1.2916 X 10 7 acres of land reserved for state parks. –The nucleus of a human cell is about 7.0 X 10 -6 meters in diameter.

56. Rules for Scientific Notation 1)Write the original number a)12,916,000 acres b)0.0000070 m 2)Move the decimal point to the right or left to make the number between 1 and 10. Count the number of decimal places. a)1.2916000 = 7 places to the left b)7.0 = 6 places to the right

57. Rules for Scientific Notation 3)Rewrite the number, deleting all extra zeroes except if it is just to the right of the decimal a)1.2916 b)7.0 4)Write a multiplication symbol and the number 10 with an exponent equal to the number of places you moved to the left (positive) or right (negative). a)1.2916 x 10 7 acres b)7.0 x 10 -6 m

58. Converting to Standard Form 1)Write the original number a)1.2916 x 10 7 acres b)7.0 x 10 -6 m 2)Move the decimal point to the right (positive exponent) or left (negative exponent) the value of the exponent. a)12,916,000 = 7 places to the right b)0.0000070 = 6 places to the left

59. Pop Quiz Match the following terms with their definitions. ___ hypothesis ___ independent variable ___ dependent variable ___ control A.factor that can change if the factor that is manipulated by the experimenter is changed B.factor that is manipulated by the experimenter C.standard for comparison D.suggested explanation for an observation often stated in the form of a question that can be answered by the results D B A C

60. Pop Quiz Match the following SI units with the type of measurement. ___ Second (s) ___ Kelvin (K) ___ Newton (N) ___ Meter (m) ___ Kilogram (kg) A.mass B.length C.weight D.time E.temperature D E C B A

61. Pop Quiz 96,000,000,000 _____________ 0.000037 _____________ 7,234,000 _____________ 0.001_____________ 5,284,200,000,000_____________ Express the following numbers in scientific notation. 9.6 X 10 10 3.7 X 10 -5 7.234 X 10 6 1 X 10 -3 5.2842 X 10 12