1. Chapter 4 Macrosociology: Studying Larger Groups and Societies Key Terms

2.  Data collection Systematic fact gathering.  Simple fact An assertion about a concrete, quite specific, and limited state of affairs, often merely the claim that something happened or exists and usually having to do with only one or very few cases.

3.  Proportional fact The distribution of something, or even the joint distribution of several things, among a number of cases.  Census Data from all cases (or units of analysis) in the relevant set. It’s a census as long as “everybody” is included, and it’s also a census if “everything” is included.

4.  Sample A set of cases (or units) randomly selected from the entire set of cases or units to be described.  Random selection A method of selection whereby all cases have an equal (or at least a known) probability of being included in the sample.

5.  Survey research A method of sociological research that has two identifying elements. First, it is based on personal interviews or by having each individual fill out a questionnaire. Second, it is based on a random sample of the relevant population. All studies having these two features are correctly identified as survey research.

6.  Contextual effect The dependence of a relationship found among individuals on social contexts, when different results occur in different social surroundings. Contextual effects mark the borderline between micro- and macrosociology.  Network analysis A research method that has been developed to test hypotheses about properties of social networks. It involves constructing measures of network variables and using networks as the units of analysis.

7.  Commune A group of people who organize to live together, often choosing to equally share duties, resources, and finances. Typically, communes also attempt to live a distinctive lifestyle in accord with an ideology that sets them apart from the surrounding society.  System Anything with these three features: (1) a set of components that are (2) interdependent and (3) maintain some degree of stability or equilibrium.

8.  Social institutions Relatively permanent patterns clusters of specialized roles, groups, organizations, customs, and activities devoted to meeting fundamental social needs.  Interdependence A relationship among parts of a system such that if one part changes, at least one part is affected.

9.  Equilibrium A state of balance among interdependent parts of a system.  Open system A system that is open to external influences. A society is open to such forces as weather, topography, seismic activity, natural resources, other societies.

10.  Functionalist theories Theories attempt to explain some part of a system by showing consequences for some other part of the system. Theses consequences are called functions; for example, function of the sweat gland is to keep organisms overheating.  Nuclear family A family group containing one adult couple and their children.

11.  Extended families Families containing more than adult couple.  Functional alternative The existence of more than one system structure that satisfies the same system

12.  Dysfunctions Social arrangements that harm or distort a social system.  Social evolutionary theories Theories that account for the existence of a social structure on the basis of its survival benefits for societies. For example, technologically superior societies will be better able to withstand environmental challenges; hence, societies will evolve toward increased technological capacity.

13.  Involution A retrograde or degenerative change in the survival capacity of societies.  Conflict theory An explanation of social structures and cultural patterns on the basis of conflicts between classes and status groups, each seeking to gain most benefits.

14.  Status group A subculture having a rather specific rank (or status) within the stratification system.