1. Chapter 4 Understanding Student Differences Viewing recommendations for Windows: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your screen area to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Colors set to Hi Color (16 bit). Viewing recommendations for Macintosh: Use the Arial TrueType font and set your monitor resolution to at least 800 by 600 pixels with Color Depth set to thousands of colors.

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–2 Overview The nature and measurement of intelligence Learning styles Gender differences and gender bias

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–3 What traditional intelligence tests measure Spearman’s two factor theory of intelligence –General factor—affected performance on all intellectual tests –Specific factor—affected performance only on specific intellectual tests

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–4 Limitations of intelligence tests The appraisal of intelligence is limited by the fact that it cannot be measured directly Intelligence tests sample intellectual capabilities that relate to classroom achievement better than they relate to anything else Intelligence test scores can be improved with systematic instruction Anything that enhances classroom performance will likely have a positive effect on intelligence test performance

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–5 Contemporary views of intelligence David Weschler—Global Capacity View Robert Sternberg—Triarchic Theory Howard Gardner—Multiple Intelligences Theory

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–6 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Practical ability Creative ability Analytical ability Adapting to one’s environment Shaping one’s environment Selecting a different environment Solving novel and unfamiliar problems Using prior knowledge and cognitive skills to solve problems and learn new information The three components of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–7 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–8 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–9 Learning styles Reflectivity and Impulsivity Field-dependence and Field- independence Mental Self-government Styles

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–10 Reflectivity versus Impulsivity Reflectivity –In a problem solving situation, the student prefers to spend more time collecting information and analyzing its relevance to the solution before offering a response Impulsivity –In a problem solving situation, the student responds quickly with little collection or analysis of information

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–11 Field-Dependence versus Field-Independence Field-Dependence –A person’s perception of and thinking about a task or problem are strongly influenced by such contextual factors as additional information and other people’s behavior Field-Independence –A person’s perception of and thinking about a task or problem are influenced more by the person’s knowledge base than by the presence of additional information or other people’s behavior

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–12 Sternberg’s Mental Self-Government Styles (1994) Legislative Executive Judicial Monarchic Hierarchic Oligarchic Anarchic Global Local Internal External Liberal Conservative

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–13 Gender differences Males outscore females on the following tests: –Visual-spatial ability –Mathematical reasoning –College entrance Females outscore males on the following tests: –Memory –Language use

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–14 What is gender bias? Gender bias is… Responding differently to male and female students without having sound educational reasons for doing so.

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–15 How gender bias affects students Course selection –Math and science courses Career choices –Familiarity with and interest in tools of science, perceived self-efficacy, encouragement from parents and teachers Class participation –“Loss of voice”

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–16 Working toward gender equity in the classroom Use work arrangements and reward systems that encourage all students to value thorough understandings of subject or task and that recognize group success as well as individual accomplishment Emphasize materials that highlight the achievements and characteristics of women and women’s groups Talk about the practical, everyday applications of math and science

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–17 Reducing the gender gap in technology Teachers’ attitudes and actions must demonstrate that computers are equally important to both genders Teachers should try to embed computer technology in reading, writing, and history, not just in math and science Girls need more role models of female computer users in schools and in the workplace Parents may need training in raising the math and technology expectations of their female children

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company4–18 Reducing the gender gap in technology (cont’d) Girls need computer camps, programs, and classes that are exclusively for them Teachers might try to increase access time or require turn-taking practices on the computer Schools and teachers need to select software with female main characters and computer tools that appeal to girls

19. End of Chapter 4 Understanding Student Differences