1. 1 Chapter 4: Understanding Student Differences Spring 2007 Kathy-ann Hernandez, Ph. D.

2. 2 Understanding Student Differences Big Questions What is intelligence? What is intelligence? Can we measure intelligence? Can we measure intelligence? How do different views of “intelligences” impact on learning? How do different views of “intelligences” impact on learning? Are their real differences in how students learn based on gender? Are their real differences in how students learn based on gender? What is gender bias? What is gender bias? How do students differ in their learning styles? How do students differ in their learning styles?

3. 3 History of Intelligence Testing Alfred Binet – 1904 Alfred Binet – 1904 To identify children able to learn. To identify children able to learn. Created the concept of Mental Age Created the concept of Mental Age (MA - individual development relative to others) (MA - individual development relative to others) Stern (1912) created the concept of Intelligence quotient (IQ) Stern (1912) created the concept of Intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ = MA/CA X 100 IQ = MA/CA X 100 Test Revised Stanford-Binet -1985 Test Revised Stanford-Binet -1985 Administered to individuals 2 years - adult Administered to individuals 2 years - adult

4. 4 Intelligence Defined Problem solving and the ability to adapt and learn from everyday experiences. (Santrock, 2004) Problem solving and the ability to adapt and learn from everyday experiences. (Santrock, 2004) Individual differences in mental ability (Snowman & Biehler, 2003) Individual differences in mental ability (Snowman & Biehler, 2003) NB: No agreed upon definition in educational psychology. NB: No agreed upon definition in educational psychology.

5. 5 Limitations of intelligence tests Intelligence cannot be measured directly Intelligence cannot be measured directly Intelligence tests sample intellectual capabilities that relate to classroom achievement Intelligence tests sample intellectual capabilities that relate to classroom achievement Intelligence test scores can be improved with instruction Intelligence test scores can be improved with instruction Anything that enhances classroom performance will likely have a positive effect on intelligence test performance (p. 105) Anything that enhances classroom performance will likely have a positive effect on intelligence test performance (p. 105)

6. 6 What traditional intelligence tests measure Spearman’s two factor theory of intelligence Spearman’s two factor theory of intelligence General factor—affected performance on all intellectual tests (memory, reasoning, comprehension) General factor—affected performance on all intellectual tests (memory, reasoning, comprehension) Specific factor—affected performance only on specific intellectual tests (e.g. math proficient, or language proficient) Specific factor—affected performance only on specific intellectual tests (e.g. math proficient, or language proficient)

7. 7 Contemporary views of intelligence David Weschler —Global Capacity View (p. 106) David Weschler —Global Capacity View (p. 106) Robert Sternberg—Triarchic Theory Robert Sternberg—Triarchic Theory Howard Gardner—Multiple Intelligences Theory Howard Gardner—Multiple Intelligences Theory

8. 8 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Practical ability Creative ability Analytical ability Adapting to one’s environment Shaping one’s environment Selecting a different environment Solving novel and unfamiliar problems Using prior knowledge and cognitive skills to solve problems and learn new information The three components of Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

9. 9 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences See Figure 4.1 on page 110 See Figure 4.1 on page 110 Not one intelligence but many (8 intelligences) Not one intelligence but many (8 intelligences) Intelligence is the ability “to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings (Gardner, 1983/2003).” Intelligence is the ability “to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings (Gardner, 1983/2003).”

10. 10 What is gender bias? Gender bias is… Responding differently to male and female students without having sound educational reasons for doing so.

11. 11 How gender bias affects students Course selection Course selection Math and science courses Math and science courses Career choices Career choices Familiarity with and interest in tools of science, perceived self-efficacy, encouragement from parents and teachers Familiarity with and interest in tools of science, perceived self-efficacy, encouragement from parents and teachers Class participation Class participation “Loss of voice” “Loss of voice”

12. 12 Gender differences Males outscore females on the following tests: Males outscore females on the following tests: Visual-spatial ability Visual-spatial ability Mathematical reasoning Mathematical reasoning College entrance College entrance Females outscore males on the following tests: Females outscore males on the following tests: Memory Memory Language use Language use

13. 13 Learning styles What is a learning style? What is a learning style? Two learning style dimensions Two learning style dimensions Reflectivity and Impulsivity (Kagan, 1964) Reflectivity and Impulsivity (Kagan, 1964) Field-dependence and Field-independence (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough & Cox, 1977) Field-dependence and Field-independence (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough & Cox, 1977)

14. 14 Reflectivity versus Impulsivity Reflectivity Reflectivity In a problem solving situation, the student prefers to spend more time collecting information and analyzing its relevance to the solution before offering a response In a problem solving situation, the student prefers to spend more time collecting information and analyzing its relevance to the solution before offering a response Impulsivity Impulsivity In a problem solving situation, the student responds quickly with little collection or analysis of information In a problem solving situation, the student responds quickly with little collection or analysis of information

15. 15 Field-dependence versus Field Independence Copyright © 6 April 2003 William M. Brown, Ph.D.

16. 16 Field-Dependence versus Field-Independence Field-Dependence Field-Dependence A person’s perception/thinking about a task strongly influenced by contextual factors as additional information and other people’s behavior A person’s perception/thinking about a task strongly influenced by contextual factors as additional information and other people’s behavior Field-Independence Field-Independence A person’s perception/thinking about a task influenced more by the person’s knowledge base than by additional information or other people’s behavior A person’s perception/thinking about a task influenced more by the person’s knowledge base than by additional information or other people’s behavior

17. 17 Implications for Practice How does your view of intelligence affect instruction? How does your view of intelligence affect instruction? What can you do to facilitate gender equity in the classroom? What can you do to facilitate gender equity in the classroom? How can you adjust instruction to cater to learning style? How can you adjust instruction to cater to learning style?