1. Chapter 5 Gender Comparisons: Social Behavior, Personality, Communication, and Cognition _____________________

2. Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits Aggression: Behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally Boys demonstrate higher levels of physical aggression than girls across age, socioeconomic group, and culture Girls demonstrate higher levels of relational aggression than boys: Harming others through nonphysical hurtful manipulation of peer relationships Explanations for gender differences in aggression Biological: Testosterone Environmental: Adults less tolerant of physical aggression in girls than in boys ________________________

3. Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits Prosocial behavior: Voluntary behavior intended to benefit someone else Girls help or comfort others more than boys Men help others more than women, especially in dangerous situations Women are more likely to provide psychological support than men Explanations Girls expected to be nurturant and kind Boys more rewarded for rescuing and chivalry _______________________

4. Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits Influenceability Women more easily influenced than men Persuasion studies: Small gender differences Group pressure conformity studies: Small but stronger gender differences Explanations Females socialized to yield to social influence, males socialized to wield social influence Accepting others’ views maintains social harmony Individuals with lower social status tend to conform to those with higher social status ______________________

5. Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits Are females more emotional than males? Fear Anger Are females more likely to express their feelings than males? Are females more empathic than males? If assessed overtly: yes If assessed unobtrusively: no ( Emotional socialization Parents more accepting of fear in girls, anger in boys Parents encourage boys to control their emotions and girls to express their emotions Emotionality __________________________ _

6. Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits Moral reasoning Males show higher levels of moral reasoning based on justice than females Females show higher levels of moral reasoning based on caring than males Research generally does not support either view Results vary across studies or find only slight gender differences Moral reasoning appears to be more dependent on context of situation than on gender of individual ______________________

7. Communication Style Verbal communication Talkativeness Stereotype: Women talk more than men Research: Men talk more than women, speak more frequently, and speak for longer time Interrupting Affiliative interruption: to show interest and affirm what the other is saying More common among females than among males Intrusive interruption: To usurp the floor and control the conversation More common among males than among females _________________________

8. Communication Style Verbal communication, continued Conversational style Females’ speech more emotional, polite, soothing; males’ speech more direct, goal-oriented, abrupt Is females’ speech more tentative than males’ ? ( Females have lower self-esteem Females have lower social status Speech style is communal, not tentative Conversational content _____________________

9. Communication Style Nonverbal communication Demonstrations of interest and warmth more likely among females than males Mutual eye contact Smiling and leaning Sensitivity to nonverbal messages and emotions Explanations for differences Socialization toward social concern among girls Females’ subordinate social status Touch Many different kinds of touch Importance of gender and social status _______________________

10. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities No gender differences in intelligence Gender differences in cognitive abilities generally small Cognitive skills develop in social context ________________________

11. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Verbal ability: Language skills such as vocabulary, reading comprehension, spelling, etc. Gender differences appear very early Girls more vocal and verbally skilled than boys Explanations Parents vocalize more with girls than with boys Parents believe girls are better than boys at language and reading _____________________

12. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Visual-spatial ability: visualizing objects or shapes and mentally rotating them Males outperform females in many, though not all, areas of visual-spatial ability Mental rotation: Largest difference Spatial perception Spatial visualization ______________________

13. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Visual-spatial ability, continued Explanations for gender differences Biological Genes and hormones Lateralization Environmental Gender stereotypes Differential encouragement in gender-typed activities ______________________

14. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Mathematics ability Meta-analysis by Janet Hyde No gender differences in understanding mathematical concepts at all ages Higher problem solving ability in boys after age 15 Differences in studies from general population versus highly select samples Gender differences in mathematics performance have decreased over time Girls receive higher grades in math than boys Magnitude of gender difference in mathematics achievement differs across cultures ______________________

15. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Mathematics ability, continued Factors associated with math performance Strong association between math achievement test scores and number of math courses taken Some college women avoid math and science courses Gender differences in mathematics self-efficacy _____________________

16. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Mathematics ability, continued Explanations for gender differences Biological Very little empirical support Environmental Parental encouragement and expectations Teacher encouragement and expectations Stereotype threat: members of stereotyped group underperform on tests because they are anxious about whether their performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their group’s ability _______________________

17. Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities Mathematics ability, continued Gender equity in science and math education Increasing emphasis toward gender equity What can teachers do to make math and science classrooms more “girl friendly”? _____________________