1. Computer History Earliest computer was the abacus abacus invented around 3,000 B.C. other calculating machines developed in 1600’s digital computer started in 1960’s due to: 1. Baron Jean Fourier – math formulas 2. solid state electronics – 1940’s 3. microchip technology – 1960’s

2. i Computer Operations Alphanumeric Operations – Computers processes alphanumeric operations (words, numbers, math problems etc.). This involves arithmetic and logical operations. 1. arithmetic operations – addition, subtraction, multiplication, division 2. logical operations – compare and state outcomes (this includes equations, word processing, typing and editing) Computers

3. Analog VS Digital Computers Analog computers – Handle data comprised of continuously varying voltages Digital computers – Handle data comprised of definite quantities of current (current “on” vs. current “off”)

4. Binary Language “1” = current on, “0” = current off bit – binary digit byte – eight bits (a word) computer memory is rated in bytes 10 megabyte hard drive holds 10,000,000 bytes (80,000,000 bits) 10 gigabyte disk holds 10,000,000,000 bytes (80,000,000,000 bits) Computers in radiology hold large amounts of information – usually require gigabyte storage devices

5. Programs and Data Programs – Software instructions for: 1) calculations 2) calling up programs 3) booting up computer 4) steps to be followed in computer operations Data – Collected facts Software – “Untouchables” – computer instructions Hardware – Items that can be touched

6. Central Processing Unit Directs information to and from various components - Contains an ALU (arithmetic logic unit) Bus – Parallel or series conductors that connect the CPU to various components - Accepts inputs from any point along conductor - Bus speed determines speed of computer Parallel conductors – Permits simultaneous transmission of information (expensive) Series conductors – Only permits sequential transmission of information (less expensive)

7. Memory Primary Memory ROM (read only memory) – Permanent memory (usually operating instructions) RAM (random access memory) – Temporary memory (disappears when computer is turned off) - Temporary storage for operating & programming instructions Secondary Memory Memory for storing images or operating instructions on three kinds of media: Floppies CD-ROM disks Hard drives These are not erased when computer is turned off

8. Peripherals Devices that permit input and/or out of information to and from the CPU These include: 1) Memory storage devices - magnetic tapes – store information sequentially using - hard drives - floppies - optical laser disks 2) Input Devices: - keyboard - cursor - mouse 3) Output Devices - CRT - printers 4) Array Processors – Specialized computer that quickly performs math computations

9. Digital Image Processing Digital image – Composed of numbers All digital images require a detector such as - ionizing radiation (digital rad., CT) - ultrasound waves - radiofrequency waves (MRI) Digital images displayed on an image matrix: - matrix – rows and columns of pixels that form the image - pixels – picture elements with length/width - voxel – picture elements that include length/width/depth (3D) - pixel size determines the resolution of the image current CRT resolution capabilities = 1-2 lp/mm - a larger image matrix provides better resolution (because of smaller pixels)

10. DICOM (digital imaging & communication in medicine standard) – An imaging standard that ensures all equipment manufacturers are speaking the same computer language

11. Fourier Transformation A mathematical method of converting raw data into computerized medical images. - adds together numerous sets of data from detectors

12. Data Characteristics Affecting Image Quality The quality of data acquired by the image receptor (detectors) is measured by frequency, contrast and noise. Frequency – The raw data to which fourier transformation is applied - frequency is a measure of the contrast in the image - high contrast = high frequency & vice versa Contrast – Difference between shades of gray - Caused by a difference between data values - Direct relationship b/w subject contrast & data contrast Noise – Random background information that does not contribute to image quality - “White noise” – snow - Measured by signal-to-noise ratio - A high signal-to-noise ratio indicates little noise in the image

13. Image Display Qualities The photon beam exiting the patient carries information representing approximately 1,000 shades of gray The human eye can only detect 32 shades of gray Window level – Controls the image density - There is a direct relationship between image level and density - When window level increases, the image density increases Window width – Controls image contrast - There is an inverse relationship between window width and image contrast - When the window width is increased, contrast is reduced

14. Resolution of Digital Images Controlled by matrix size - There is a direct relationship between matrix size and image resolution - As matrix size increases (pixel size decreases), resolution increases - The primary determinant of resolution is the pixel size Bandwidth (frequency response of the incoming signal) also affects resolution - Bandwidth of commercial TV is 4 MHz - Bandwidth in digital images is 20 MHz Raster pattern also affects resolution - 525 line systems have a 1 – 2 lp/mm resolution - 1, 050 (1,000 line) systems have a 5-7 lp/mm resolution

15. Filtering The process of enhancing or suppressing selected image frequencies to extract more diagnostic information Low-pass filtering – amplifies or deletes all but the low frequencies - Used to decrease image contrast and remove high frequency image noise High-pass filtering – amplifies or deletes all but the high frequencies - Used to increase image contrast - Also called “edge enhancement” – enhances the edges of structures - Primarily used in digital vascular imaging

16. Picture Archiving and Communication Systems (PACS) A computer system involved in the acquisition, storage and transmission of digital images. - Includes digital images of CT, MRI, ultrasound, mammography, CR and digital radiography Advantages Eliminates space for storage Misfiling less likely Less acquisition time Eliminates film costs Disadvantage Initial cost Memory storage Can require up to 3.2 terabytes (3.2 X 10 12 ) of computer memory per year.