1. Education after 1870
Towards Universality?

2. The Forster Education Act
School Boards set up
Board members elected
Money used to fund existing and new schools
Places could be free for needy children
Only ‘Bible’ teaching allowed in Board schools
Cowper-Temple clause gave parents the right to remove children

3. How effective was the Act?
Maintained and improved the existing system
Religious division continued (re: elections, teaching, funding)
Payment by results and attendance continued
By 1900, 54% pupils in Board schools. London School Board built 400 schools
Three times as many children educated by 1900, though many children still at work instead
Increasing cost – unpopular with working class

4. How was the Act supported?
1873 – outdoor relief made dependent on school attendance
1876 – attendance made the responsibility of parents
1880 – attendance compulsory for children aged 5-10 (fees waived for the poor). Leaving age 11 – 1893 and
1890 – payment by results in three Rs abolished
1891 – Fee Grant Act virtually establishes free elementary education

5. The Balfour Education Act - causes
Some Boards had been spending on Secondary education. Successful case brought against London Board in 1901
Some inefficient Boards (especially rural areas)
Board of Education established in 1899
Robert Morant at Board of Education
Booth (London, pub. 1903), Rowntree (York, pub. 1899)
Desire for ‘national efficiency’
Continued relative decline, Boer War
Reactionary government? Remove power of elected School Boards and increase CofE and grammar influence

6. The Balfour Education Act, 1902
Abolished School Boards
Established LEAs (local Education Authorities)
Money from rates could be spent on secondary education
Fees required but scholarships also provided
Money from rates could be spent on Voluntary (Church) schools

7. How effective was Balfour’s Act?
Numbers in secondary schools doubled from 94,000 in 1905 to 200,000 in 1914
Many LEAs set up grammar schools for able pupils
Provision for technical schools also available
Criticism for expense and as a ‘dangerous act of State socialism’
Middle classes benefited most

8. Balfour’s Act – the religious issue
Huge revolt of Non-conformists – 7000 prosecutions for refusal to pay rates and 170 in prison
Massive unrest in South Wales
‘Rome on the Rates’
Based on view that funds from rates used for Church schools. (Taxation had always done this to some extent)
Contributes to election defeat in 1906?

9. Fisher Education Act - causes
Collectivist/interventionist attitude
Fisher at the Ministry of Education
Working class vote
Economic changes – decline of traditional industries beginning
Failure of Balfour Act to increase Sec Ed significantly

10. Fisher’s Education Act, 1918
Compulsory education until 14
Elementary school fees abolished
‘No children should be debarred through the inability to pay fees’
Encouragement for continuation classes past school leaving age. Part time schooling ended
Proposals required from LEAs for all aspects of education (nursery – adult education)

11. How effective was Fisher’s Act?
1923 – 75% of all children in elementary education
Only 7.5% receiving ‘advanced instruction’ at secondary/technical schools
Geddes Axe curtailed spending (£51m in £41m in 1924)
Massive extension of the scope of education – government grants to LEAs and teachers’ salaries increased

12. Hadow Report, 1926
Abolish elementary and replace with ‘primary’ to age 11 and ‘secondary’ (grammar or modern) to age 15
‘Secondary Education for All…irrespective of income, class or occupation of their parents.’
2/3 of all children over 11 in ‘modern’ schools by 1938 (plus some in grammar)
School leaving age not raised in 1931 as planned

13. By 1939… free places up from one third to ½.
Total numbers up from 200,000 to nearly 1/2m.
Total spending stayed about 6% of government expenditure
Local authorities doubled expenditure and paid for about 50% of education

14. Spens Report, 1938
Accepted principle of free secondary education and higher leaving age
‘Tripartite division’ – modern, technical and grammar
Encourage ‘progressive methods’ – curiosity, exam focus
‘Widely applauded by teaching profession’
Conservative view of Board of Education and threat and outbreak of war a brake on reform

15. Butler Education Act, 1944 – Change?
Schools monitored by LEAs and overseen by Minister for Education.
All fees abolished
Obligation to provide education ‘sufficient in number, character and equipment for all pupils’
Primary and secondary introduced
Leaving age set to rise to 16 in future

16. Butler Education Act - Causes
R.A Butler as Minister for Education
Spens, Hadow and Butler reports
Britain questioning her place in the world
WW2 increases intervention
Previous experience/legislation

17. Butler Education Act – Continuity?
Interpreted so as to continue ‘tripartite’ division – a small number of LEAs set up ‘comprehensive’ education
Private schools outside govt. control
Built on previous practice and legislation
Maintained hierarchic system
RE and worship required in every state school

18. Education Reforms 1833 first government grant to education
1856 teacher training colleges set up
1861 payment by results
1870 Forster Act – free elementary education
1902 Balfour Act – establishes LEAs
1918 Fisher Act – free and compulsory to 14
1944 Balfour Act – primary/secondary
- free and compulsory to 15