1. Tone Phonemes Answers ː Yoruba tone melodies VCV nounsCVCV nouns Hk ͡ pák ͡ pá‘field’ M ɔ̄ b ɛ̄ ‘knife’ Làg ͡ bà‘adult’ HLbúrù‘news’ HMrír̃ũ ̄ ‘pain’ MLa ̄ k ͡ pò‘sack’ LHàk ͡ pá‘arm’bàbá‘father’ LMàga ̄ ‘chair’ MH ɔ̄ g ͡ bá‘stick’ There are too many tone melodies for there to be only 2 underlying level tones. There must be 3 underlying level tones, High, Mid, Low. Also, there are 3 contrastive tone heights on the second syllable in the words ɔ̄ g ͡ ba ‘stick’, ɔ̄ b ɛ̄ ‘knife’, a ̄ k ͡ pò ‘sack’

2. Tone Phonemes Review How do we know when surface tones have different underlying tone?

3. Tone Phonemes Review How do we know when surface tones have different underlying tone? [ 2 2 3] [2 3 3] [4 4 p] k ʊ –t ͡ʃɔ r ɪ ‘horn’ k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’ k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ If the words have analogous environments, and tones in contrast have the same tone before and after, the surface tones have different underlying tone. The L tone on /t ͡ʃɔ / and M tone on /s ɪ / have different underlying tone phonemes.

4. Steps for finding how to write differences in meaning made by tone (3 of 3) 17.Study the Tone System A. Decide how many tone melodies there are B. Decide how many underlying level tone phonemes (contrastive tone heights) C. Find the tone phoneme distribution D. Predict the environment for any tone neutralization and tone allophones E. Find how to predict tone changes across morpheme and word boundaries F. Find differences in words and grammar made only by tone G. Find the functional load of tone H. Decide if/how to write tone in the orthography.

5. Tone Melodies in ‘BELI Sudan There must be 3 underlying tones: High, Mid, Low. From the surface melodies, we can make reasonable guesses at the underlying tone phonemes of each. CV CVCV CVCVCV H[4] [4 4][4 4 4] d ̪ a‘meat’ ɲɔ r ɔ ‘poison’k ʊɾʊɓʊ ‘dove’ M[3 3] ce ɾ e‘star’ L[2] [2 a][2 2 a] ha‘cow’m ͡ bala ‘song’ t ̪ɪ ma ɾ a‘crocodile’ HL[p] [4 a][4 4 a] bi‘dog’g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’k ɪ l ɪ ja‘stick’ HM[4 3] h ɔ l ɔ ‘buttock’ LH[2 4] [2 4 4] kab ɪ ‘roof’d ̪ɔ haj ɪ ‘land’ LM[B] [2 3] [2 3 3] də‘grandparent’g ͡ b ɛ t ̪ɪ ‘child’akaca‘donkey’ MH[C] [3 4] [3 4 4] p ɪ ‘bamboo’baja‘wing’k ɔ b ɪ l ɪ ‘finger’

6. ‘BELI Sudan L [2] [2 a][2 2 a] ha‘cow’m ͡ bala ‘song’ t ̪ɪ ma ɾ a‘crocodile’ HL [p] [4 a][4 4 a] bi‘dog’g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’k ɪ l ɪ ja‘stick’ In many African languages, when words are said by themselves (in isolation), underlying Low tone at the end of the word has the sound Low-falling. So the Low-falling sound in m ͡ bala [2 a] ‘song’ and g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a [4 a] ‘cassava’ is a tone allophone of the underlying Low tone phoneme. Word-final Low-falling /L/  [L falling] at end of a word said by itself  [L] elsewhere /2 2/  [2 a] /m ͡ bala/  m ͡ bala‘song’ L  L falling

7. Segment allophone Lumun (Sudan) [ ɣ ] in [ka ɣɛ k] ‘tree type’ Voicing and weakening /k/  [ ɣ ] in-between vowels/kak ɛ k/  [ka ɣɛ k] ‘tree type’  [k] elsewhere/kaβ ɪ k/  [kaβ ɪ k] ‘rain’ Tone allophone ‘BELI Sudan [L] in m ͡ bala [2 a] ‘song’ Word-final Low-falling /L/  [L falling] at end of a word said by itself  [L] elsewhere /2 2/  [2 a] /m ͡ bala/  m ͡ bala ‘song’ L  L falling

8. Distribution of vowel phoneme combinations in 2 syllable words MUNDARI Sudan (8-vowel system) First vowelSecond vowel ɪʊɛɔ aiuə ɪ xxxxx ʊ xxxxx ɛ xxx ɔ xxxx axxxx ixxx uxxx əxxx

9. Distribution of Tone phoneme combinations in ‘BELI Sudan CVCV nouns Second Tone First Tone [4 4][4 3] [4 a] H,H ɲɔ r ɔ ‘poison’H,M h ɔ l ɔ ‘buttock’ H,L g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’ [3 4] [3 3] M,H baja ‘wing’ M,Mce ɾ e ‘star’M,L [2 4][2 3] [2 a] L,H kab ɪ ‘roof’ L,M g ͡ b ɛ t ̪ɪ ‘child’L,L m ͡ bala ‘song’ We don’t find M,L in any other parts of speech. We don’t find L after M anywhere in ‘Beli. HML HXXX MXX LXXX

10. Neutralization of segment phonemes GAAHMG Sudan InitialMedial Final ppa ̄ d ̪ á ‘rope’ cca ̄ a ̄ ‘bath’ kkáál ‘fence’ bbád ̪ à ‘bowl’ ɟ ílə̀b ‘spring’ ɟɟ a ̄ a ̄ ‘boy’bà ɟ wáár‘bird t.’ bìmìrí ɟ ‘bird t.’ gga ̄ àl ‘falcon’ba ̄ gd ̪ àrs‘lizard’ gàág ‘bird t.’ Neutralization: The contrast between voiceless plosives /p/, /c/, /k/ and voiced plosives /b/, / ɟ /, /g/ is neutralized in medial and final word positions.

11. ‘BELI Sudan words said by themselves [2 a] [2 3] [2 4] m ͡ bala ‘song’ g ͡ b ɛ t ̪ɪ ‘child’kab ɪ ‘roof’ There are 3 phonetic pitches, and 3 contrastive heights in the analogous environment of the second syllable. (However, L falling tone is an allophone of Low tone.)

12. Neutralization of tone phonemes ‘BELI Sudan H and M are contrastive after H, after M, and after L. So, both H and Mid tone are tone phonemes. After HAfter MAfter LBefore L [4 4] [3 4] [2 4] [4 a] H ɲɔ r ɔ ‘poison’ baja ‘wing’ kab ɪ ‘roof’ g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’ [4 3] [3 3] [2 3] Mh ɔ l ɔ ‘buttock’ ce ɾ e ‘star’ g ͡ b ɛ t ̪ɪ ‘child’ Neutralization: The contrast between H and M is neutralized before L. In this environment, only H occurs.

13. Mid Tone Raising (Dissimilation) (‘BELI Sudan) /M/  /H/ before L/3 2/ [4 a]  /M/ elsewhere g ͡ ba ̄ ⁿd ̪ à  g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’ /ML/  [HL] /3 3/ [3 3] ce ̄ɾ e ̄  ce ɾ e‘star’ /MM/  [MM] Dissimilation means becoming unlike the sound near it. It is the opposite of assimilation. The underlying M tone becomes H so that it is less like the following L tone. Both dissimilation and assimilation are common processes in African languages. L tone is usually stronger than H or M in African languages. It is common for L tone to affect other tones. It is not common for H or M to affect L tone. There are many roots in ‘Beli with phonetic HL melodies. The underlying ML melodies may become some of the phonetic HL melodies.

14. Tone Melodies in CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) kV-CVCV has 3 contrastive tone melodies when said by themselves [2 3 3][2 2 3][4 4 p] k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’ k ʊ –t ͡ʃɔ r ɪ ‘horn’ k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ kV-CVŋ has 4 contrastive tone melodies when said by themselves [2 3] [2 i] [4 p] [2 a] ku–suŋ ‘work (n)’ k ɪ –baŋ ‘paddle’ k ɪ –laŋ ‘hip’ k ɪ –paŋ ‘cutlass’ There are 2 morphemes in each word—the root and the prefix k ɪ -/k ʊ -/ku-. In k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’, k ɪ - is a morpheme and s ɪ b ɔ is a morpheme. Each morpheme may have its own underlying tone melody. In k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’, there may be a tone melody on k ɪ - and there may be a tone melody on s ɪ b ɔ. We know there are 2 underlying level tones in the language (H and L), but we don’t know yet which surface melody has which underlying level tones. We don’t know if k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ [2 3 3] ‘ear’ has underlying L-H or H-H or some other underlying pattern. The two morphemes coming together may cause the underlying tones to change in the surface form. We cannot even make a reasonable guess at the underlying tone without more study.

15. Tone Melodies in CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) CVCV has 3 contrastive tone melodies when said by themselves [4 4][2 3][2 a] f ʊ r ɪ ‘deer’ k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ keri ‘lizard’ There is only 1 morpheme in each word—each word is a root. The words are in an analogous group, so the roots must have different underlying tone melodies. There are 3 phonetic tone heights in the words (High, Mid, Low), but only 2 contrastive underlying tone heights in the analogous environment of the second syllable. k ɔ t ɪ [2 3] ‘monkey’ keri [2 a] ‘lizard’ Since there is only one tone melody in each word, we can make reasonable guesses at the underlying melodies as follows: [4 4][2 3][2 a] f ʊ r ɪ ‘deer’ k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ keri ‘lizard’ HLHL

16. Tone Distribution in CHUMBURUNG CVCV nouns Second Tone First Tone [4 4][4 4 p] H,Hf ʊ r ɪ ‘deer’ H,L ?k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ [2 3][2 a] L,H ?k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ L,Lkeri ‘lizard’ The word k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ with L,M tone could have underlying L,H tone. The word k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ with H,H-falling tone in the root could have underlying H,L tone. HL HX LX

17. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) We never find phonetic H after L. We only find phonetic M after L. [2 3] k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ [2 2 3] k ʊ -t ͡ʃɔ r ɪ ‘horn’ [2 3] ku-suŋ ‘work (n)’ [2 3 3] k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’

18. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) High Tone Lowering /H/  [M] after L  [H] elsewhere We never find phonetic H after L. We only find phonetic M after L. / 2 4 /[2 3] /k ɔ ̀t ɪ /  k ɔ t ɪ ‘monkey’ /L,H/  [L,M] / 4 4 /[4 4] /f ʊ ́r ɪ ́/  f ʊ r ɪ ‘deer’ /H-H/  [H-H] H is never contrastive with M in Chumburung. So, [M] is an allophone.

19. Tone Melodies in CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) kV-CVCV has 3 contrastive tone melodies when said by themselves [2 3 3][2 2 3][4 4 p] k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’ k ʊ –t ͡ʃɔ r ɪ ‘horn’ k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ kV-CVŋ has 4 contrastive tone melodies when said by themselves [2 3] [2 i] [4 p] [2 a] ku–suŋ ‘work (n)’ k ɪ –baŋ ‘paddle’ k ɪ –laŋ ‘hip’ k ɪ –paŋ ‘cutlass’

20. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) Exercise 1 ː How would you write a rule for the following? We never find phonetic L after H. We only find phonetic H, and H falling after H. [4 4 4][4 4 p][4 p] k ɪ -s ɪ b ɔ ‘ear’ k ɪ - ɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ k ɪ -laŋ ‘hip’

21. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) Exercise 1 ː How would you write a rule for the following? We never find phonetic L after H. We only find phonetic H, and H falling after H. High Tone Rightward Spreading /L/  /H falling/ after H / 4 4 2 /[4 4 p] k ɪ ́- ɲ áp ʊ ̀  k ɪɲ ap ʊ ‘breast’ /H-H,L/  [H-H,HL] H falling is never contrastive with L in Chumburung. But it is contrastive with H. So, /H falling/ is a combination of H and L and is not an allophone.

22. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) Exercise 2 ː How would you write a rule for the following? We never find phonetic L at the ends of words said by themselves. We only find phonetic L falling. [4 a] [2 a] g ͡ baⁿd ̪ a ‘cassava’ keri ‘lizard’

23. CHUMBURUNG Ghana (Snider) Exercise 2 ː How would you write a rule for the following? We never find phonetic L at the ends of words said by themselves. We only find phonetic L falling. Low falling /L/  [L falling] at end of a word said by itself  [L] elsewhere / 2 2 /[2 a] keri  keri ‘lizard’ /L,L/  [L,Lfalling] L falling is never contrastive with L in Chumburung. So, [L falling] is an allophone of L.

24. Class Assignmentː 1.Make a distribution chart comparing first and second tones in Yoruba VCV or CVCV nouns. List any gaps in the distribution. 2.Predict the environment where tone neutralization and tone allophones occur in nouns. Or if there is none, say so. Reading Assignment A Guide to Phonological Analysis pg 80-81 Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (2.4 - 2.6) pg. 33-39; (5.5) pg. 125-133.