1. The Correlational Research Strategy
Chapter 12

2. Correlational Research
The goal of correlational research is to describe the relationship between variables and to measure the strength of the relationship.

3. 3 characteristics
A correlation describes three characteristics of a relationship.
The direction (positive / negative)of the relationship.
The form (linear/ nonlinear) of the relationship.
The consistency or strength (magnitude) of the relationship.

4. Direction
In a positive relationship, there is a tendency for two variables to change in the same direction.
In a negative relationship, there is a tendency for two variables to change in opposite directions.

5. Scatter Plot

6. Examples of positive and negative relationships

7. 2 forms of correlation Linear correlation
Data points in the scatter plot tend to cluster around a straight line. The size of increase in Y is consistently predictable (not accurately).
(height and age)- Pearson
Monotonic (nonlinear) correlation
The relationship is consistent and predictable, but not linear.
(practice & Performance) Spearman

8. 2 forms of correlation

9. 2 forms of correlation

10. Evaluating Relationships for Non- numerical Scores
If one of the scores is numerical, like IQ, and the other is non- numerical, and If the non- numerical variable consists of exactly two categories, the resulting correlation is called a point-biserial correlation.

11. phi- coefficient.
If the two non- numerical variables both consist of exactly two categories, each can be numerically coded as 0 and 1. For example, male 0 and female 1; failure 0 and success 1.

12. Phi

13. chi- square
If both variables are non- numerical, the relationship is typically evaluated by organizing the data in a matrix.
the matrix shows the frequency or number of individuals in that cell and the data are evaluated using a chi- square hypothesis test

14. Chi- Square
Drama
Action
Comedy
Latino 4 12 10
Asian 8
White 19 18 14

15. APPLICATIONS OF THE CORRELATIONAL STRATEGY
Prediction (SAT & GPA)
Reliability and Validity (Test & Retest)
Evaluating Theories (IQ and Math)

16. coefficient of determination
The squared value of a correlation is called the coefficient of determination and measures the percentage of variability in one variable that is determined, or predicted, by its relationship with the other variable.

17. Sample size
With a sample of two individuals, you will always obtain a perfect correlation of 1.00
As the sample size increases, it becomes increasingly more likely that the sample correlation accurately represents the real relationship that exists in the population.
You should be warned, however, that a statistically significant correlation does not necessarily mean that the correlation is large or strong.

18. Advantages
can identify variables and describe relationships between variables that might suggest further investigation using the experimental strategy to determine cause- and- effect relationships.
allow researchers an opportunity to investigate variables that would be impossible or unethical to manipulate.
Correlational studies tend to have high external validity.

19. Weaknesses - Internal Validity
Correlational studies tend to have low internal validity.
A correlational study does not determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect.
The third- variable problem.

20. RELATIONSHIPS WITH MORE THAN TWO VARIABLES
For studying multivariate relationships we use a statistical procedure known as multiple regression.