1. As you might have guessed, the next topic we are going to examine is…….
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
So what was the point of the seven dwarves exercise?

2. Stages of Memory Sequential Process Keyboard Disk Monitor (Encoding)
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process

3. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
OBJECTIVE 15| Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming.
smoke
truck
heat
red

4. Priming (William James)
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

5. Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers

6. Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).
OBJECTIVE 16| Cite some ways that context can affect retrieval.

7. Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

8. Types of Memory Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory
Encoding
Retrieval
Long-Term Memory

9. Sensory Memory
The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Echoic – sensory memory for sound (last 1-2 s.)
Iconic – sensory memory for vision (lasts a fraction of a second)
Stored just for an instant, and most gets unprocessed.

10. Short-Term Memory Memory that holds a few items briefly.
Seven digits (plus of minus two).
The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten.
How do you store things from short-term to long-term?
You must repeat things over and over to put them into your long-term memory.
Rehearsal

11. Long Term Memory Unlimited storehouse of information.
Explicit (declarative) memories
Implicit (non-declarative) memories

12. Explicit Memories (aka, declarative memories)
Episodic Memories
Semantic Memories
Formed by the hippocampus; stored in the cerebral cortex.

13. Implicit Memories Procedural Memories Conditioned Memories
Formed by the cerebellum; stored in the cerebral cortex.

14. To summarize….

15. Bloom, Nelson, and Lazerson, Brain, Mind, and Behavior
Figure 10.06

16. Getting the information in our heads!!!!
Encoding
How do you encode the info you read in our text?
Getting the information in our heads!!!!

17. Two ways to encode information
Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing

18. Automatic Processing Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Examples: what table you were seated at a restaurant; what you ate for breakfast, where on the page a word was, who you saw on the way to class today.
Things can become automatic with practice (when you first learn a new word, every time you hear it, you consciously and effortfully pull up the definition from meaning; after hearing it 50 times, you can understand the word without effort – reading Shakespeare.)

19. Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards

20. Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Examples: vocabulary for school, dates, names
Rehearsal (conscious repetition) is the most common effortful processing technique.
It depends on the amount of time spent processing the information.
Overlearning (reviewing things you already know) enhances retention. (This is why Dr. Humble will probably never allow senior exam exemptions.)

21. Effortful Processing
Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
OBJECTIVE 4| Contrast effortful processing with automatic processing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacing effect and the serial position effect.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
© Bananastock/ Alamy

22. Memory Effects
Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

23. Spacing Effect
We increase long-term retention when we study or practice over time.
Cramming is an inefficient means of studying (ie, cramming = less time for guitar hero)

24. Serial Positioning Effect
We tend to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list best.
Primacy effect is stronger than recency effect if there is a delay between the list and recall.
Words remembered
Order on list

25. Quiz Question
Your consciously activated but limited-capacity memory is called ________ memory.
short-term
Implicit
Echoic
Explicit
Semantic

26. Quiz Question
Memory of facts is to ________ as memory of skills is to ________.
brainstem; hippocampus
Explicit memory; implicit memory
Automatic processing; effortful processing
Short-term memory; long-term memory
Iconic; echoic

27. Quiz Question
Darren was asked to memorize a list of letters that included v, q, y, and j. He later recalled these letters as e, u, i, and k, suggesting that the original letters had been encoded
Automatically
Visually
Semantically
Acoustically

28. Value of elaboration A = does the word contain an “e”? Yes or no.
B = how many syllables does the word have?
C = does the word evoke pleasant (P) or unpleasant (U) feelings for you?
A words: fireplace, movie, shoe, puppy
B words: tortilla, window, goldfish, basketball
C words: Dickens, soda, popsicle, dream
From which list did you remember the most? Why?

29. Which type works best?

30. Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
Often it will occur automatically.
Take 10 seconds to try to remember this number list:
Chunk- from Goonies
Now, try again:
1492, 1776, 1812, 1941
What are some other examples of chunking?

31. Tricks to Encoding Mnemonic Devices = memory tricks
Often use imagery (peg word, method of loci, “hippo on campus…”)
May use chunking (King Philip Came Over for Great Spaghetti, SOHCOHTOA, My very earnest mother just served us nine [pizzas], ROY G. BIV)
Give me some more examples….
Links to examples of mnemonic devices.

32. Storing Memories in the Brain
Through electrical stimulation of the brain, Wilder Penfield (1967) concluded that old memories were etched into the brain.
Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed Penfield's data and showed that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.
Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.

33. Storage: Long-Term Memory
How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn maze
lesion cortex
test memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

34. Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov Courtesy of Dominique Muller

35. Self-Reference Effect
The idea that we remember things when they relate to ourselves.
What do we do in class to take advantage of this?

36. Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain why we should value our ability to forget, and distinguish three general ways our memory fails us.

37. We cannot remember what we do not encode.
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not encode.
OBJECTIVE 19| Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.

38. Which penny is real?

39. Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve.
OBJECTIVE 20| Discuss the concept of storage decay, and describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.

40. Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

41. Biological Basis of Memory
Amnesia— severe memory loss
Retrograde amnesia— inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation
Anterograde amnesia— inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage

42. Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

43. Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer: Memory Experiment and Hypothesis
Researchers have also conducted experiments that reveal a great deal about memory. Psychologists have looked at things such as how people remember things, how memories change over time, and why different people often remember the same event differently.
In a well-known 1974 experiment, Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer hypothesized that people would remember a car accident differently if they were given different language cues about the accident.
Hypothesis: People will remember a car accident differently if given different language cues (words) about the accident

44. Loftus and Palmer: Methodology
Loftus and Palmer recruited 45 American college students to participate in their study. These subjects watched a film of an accident in which two cars collided relatively gently. The film showed no broken glass. Subjects were then divided into groups and asked one of the following five questions:
About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
About how fast were the cars going when they collided?
About how fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?
About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?
Students watched a film of two cars colliding
Collision was moderate with no broken glass
Different students asked different questions: hit, smashed, collided, bumped, contacted

45. Loftus and Palmer: Results
VERB
MEAN ESTIMATE OF SPEED (MPH)
Smashed
40.8
Collided
39.3
Bumped
38.1
Hit
34.0
Contacted
31.8
Subjects who had been asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other reported higher speeds than subjects who were asked the other questions. The subsequent order of reported speeds was given—from fastest to slowest—by people in the smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted groups.
People reported the fastest speeds if the researchers had used the word “smashed” in the question
From fastest to slowest reported speeds: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted groups

46. Study pitfalls
Visual encoding: thinking about the appearance of the word
Acoustic encoding: thinking about the sound of the word (unless it is set to music—then it is great for rote memorization)
The next-in-line effect: we seldom remember what the person has just said or done if we are next.
Information minutes before sleep is seldom remembered; in the hour before sleep, well remembered.
Taped info played while asleep is registered by ears, but we do not remember it.

47. Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
Make material personally meaningful.
Use mnemonic devices:
associate with peg words — something already stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
OBJECTIVE 28| Explain how an understanding of memory can contribute to effective study techniques.

48. Improving Memory
Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.
Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.
Minimize interference:
1. Test your own knowledge.
2. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.
© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis

49. Figure Levels of analysis for the study of memory Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

50. Quiz Question
In order to remember to buy sugar, ham, oranges, and potatoes the next time he does to the grocery store, Nabil forms the word “SHOP” with the first letter of each item. He is using a memory aid known as
Chunking
The spacing effect
The serial position effect
The method of loci
The next-in-line effect

51. Quiz Question
When Carlos was promoted, he moved into a new office with a new phone extension. Every time he is asked for his phone number, Carlos first thinks of his old extension, illustrating the effects of
proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Encoding failure
Storage failure