2. Today 2 key issues: (1) Structure of police agencies (2) Policies/Procedures

3. Hierarchy Most organizations have some hierarchy Any organization where someone has authority over someone else (i.e. a “boss”) Degree of hierarchy is usually related to size Problems: Communication delays Problems in creating feedback  Tough to balance supervision with efficiency

4. Accountability Key principle: Responsibility to carry out a task should come with the commensurate authority, and no authority should be given without commensurate responsibility Issue: When authority is delegated, it is not always used wisely (too much, too little, or improper use).  Monitoring of delegated authority is essential  Monitoring must be fair and uniform

5. Police & Authority Ultimate authority rests with the Chief, who must delegate his/her authority Chiefs often reticent to delegate authority But: This affects administration, but often not operational issues Line officers still have tremendous authority Still: When authority is delegated, it must be clear how authority is to be used.

6. Key Organizational Principles Four: (1) Chain of command Formal communication channels (2) Unity of command No more than 1 superior (3) Span of control Number of subordinates reporting to supervisor (4) Grouping like functions Organizational units (admin, operations, aux)

7. Written Guidelines Police possess great power over citizens Want police to use power in accordance with organizational principles/values Want to provide police with guidance about expectations of how to use power This is done through guidelines: policies, procedures and rules/regulations Issue: Police deal with a wide variety of situations and are afforded tremendous discretion

8. Policies Not too long ago, police administrators resisted making policies to serve as standards for officers’ conduct. They resisted based on 3 arguments: (1) The criminal law is an effective and sufficient control on the behavior of officers charged with enforcing it (2) Policies are unworkable, since every police situation is different (3) By specifying restrictive policies, the police would create narrow standards by which their conduct would be judged in court, thereby increasing their exposure to civil liability

9. What is Policy? They are guides for decision-making They are more general than procedures and rules  Policy is vital—every situation is different, but meaningful guidelines can be created for critical and frequent police situations (e.g., use of force, domestic violence, off-duty conduct, special operations)  Some research shows that policy can have demonstrable effects on employee behavior

10. What are Procedures? More specific than policies Guides to action: a means for carrying out policies (“action plans”) Problem: procedures can create efficiency and effectiveness, or they can hamper them. So: police must invest in procedural development, outlining which activities need strict control, which need decision-making guidelines, and which need summary guidance.

11. What are rules/regulations? Specific guidelines with no room for discretion Require or prohibit specific behavior (e.g. no officer shall receive free meals or drinks) “Action mandates”

12. Systems Theory Written guidelines must be meaningful, and kept current  These should be developed with input from the system (both internally & externally)  These should be part of a closed system (i.e., there needs to be a “feedback loop”). How? Review of internal documents (complaints, UoF reports) Review of police research literature Contact with other agencies, professional orgs, training programs, etc.