1. Emergency Exposure Situations Types of Events Nuclear and Radiological Accidents Lecture IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources

2. 2 Content l Introduction l Types of radiation accidents l Where they can happen l Accident consequences l Statistics of radiation accidents l Summary Module IX.2 - Types of Events

3. Radioactive material is: l Used everywhere today (found at local hospitals, industrial sites, where bridges, buildings or roads are built) l Transported on the roads everyday l Lost and abandoned 3 Introduction Module IX.2 - Types of Events

4. 4 Introduction l Radiation sources are an integral part of our technology-based life l The potential for accidents is there and it is not disappearing l We will examine the potential for accidents that could lead to radiological consequences Module IX.2 - Types of Events

5. 5 What is a Radiation Accident l A situation in which there is an unintentional exposure to ionising radiation or radioactive contamination l Exposure may be real or suspected Module IX.2 - Types of Events

6. 6 General Classification l The range of potential emergencies involving ionizing radiations is enormous n From a major reactor accident to accidents involving small amounts of radioactive material l In general, emergencies may be classified into two broad categories: n Nuclear accidents n Radiological accidents Module IX.2 - Types of Events

7. Nuclear accidents may occur at: l Nuclear reactors (research reactors, ship reactors and power reactors); l Storage facilities for large quantities of spent fuel or liquid or gaseous radioactive material; l Fuel cycle facilities (e.g. fuel processing plants); l Accident involving the detonation with partial nuclear yield of a nuclear weapon 7 Nuclear Accidents (emergencies) Module IX.2 - Types of Events

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9. 9 Where Can They Occur l The highest risk of severe health effects resulting from a radioactive release comes from nuclear power plants or facilities storing large amounts of nuclear waste from reprocessed nuclear fuel l The highest risk of severe health effects resulting from a radioactive release comes from nuclear power plants or facilities storing large amounts of nuclear waste from reprocessed nuclear fuel l By far the most common facility containing very large amounts of radioactive material is a nuclear power plant l There are over 400 commercial nuclear power plants (NPP) operating in the world Module IX.2 - Types of Events

10. 10 Reactor Accidents l NRX, Canada, 1952 l Windscale, UK, 1957 l NRU, Canada, 1957 l Westinghouse test reactor, USA, 1960 l SL-1, USA, 1961 l Enrico Fermi, USA, 1966 l Lucens, Switzerland, 1976 l Browns Ferry fire, USA, 1975 l TMI, USA, 1979 l Chernobyl, USSR, 1986 l Fukushima, 2011 Module IX.2 - Types of Events

11. Radiological emergencies include: l Uncontrolled (abandoned, lost, stolen or found) dangerous sources; l Misuse of industrial and medical dangerous sources (e.g. of those used in radiography); l Public exposures and contamination from unknown origins; l Re-entry of a satellite containing radioactive material; l Serious overexposures; l Malicious threats and/or acts; l Transport emergencies. 11 Radiological Accidents (emergencies) Module IX.2 - Types of Events

12. 12Module IX.2 - Types of Events

13. 13 Accidents With Radioactive Sources l Discovery of a source or contamination l Missing source (lost or stolen) l Damaged source or loss of shielding l Fire involving radioactive source(s) l Dispersion of alpha emitter l Transport accident with radioactive sources l Accident involving nuclear or radiological devices (research reactor, neutron generator, accelerator…) Module IX.2 - Types of Events

14. 14 Where Can They Occur l Medical institutions l Industrial facilities l Research and educational institutions l Transport involving radioactive material l Nuclear fuel cycle l Field applications with gamma radiography Module IX.2 - Types of Events

15. 15 Where Else l Almost anywhere n In the field (gamma radiography sources) n Terrorist or criminal activities n Illicit trafficking n In scrap yards (wrongly disposed source) n On military premises n Basically, in many places where they should not be Module IX.2 - Types of Events

16. 16 Transboundary Accidents l Impact from a severe accident at a nuclear installation far from the country’s border l Most significant threat: contamination of the environment through deposition n Deposition is highest if rain is present at the time of plume passage l Most significant challenge: the media perception Module IX.2 - Types of Events

17. 17 Nuclear Powered Satellite Re-entry l Nuclear power sources are used in space vehicles such as satellites and deep space probes n Satellites may carry a small nuclear reactor, radioisotopic thermoelectric generators and heating units contain plutonium l Launch accidents are not a significant threat l Accidental re-entry is a possible threat n Crash on ground may lead to wide-spread of contamination (e.g. accidental re-entry of the Soviet nuclear-powered satellite Cosmos 954 in Canada, 1978) Module IX.2 - Types of Events

18. 18 Objective is to create terror n Dirty bombs n Contamination of food, water, products n Radioactive sources in public places n Threats l Very difficult to cause many injures or deaths l Public perception important; public information vital l Response must include law enforcement component and preservation of evidences Malicious acts involving radioactive materials Module IX.2 - Types of Events

19. Dirty bombs 19 Blast danger Rad danger 100 – 200 m Little radiation risk: -Avoid smoke within 100 m -Do not eat or smoke -Do not pick up pieces

20. UK response to Po-210 poisoning Demonstrated: l That by following standard techniques used to prevent infection you can safely treat contaminated victims l The importance of giving a single clear, truthful, and consistent message to the public In 2007 in the United Kingdom a person was poisoned using the radioactive material Po–210 Module IX.2 - Types of Events

21. Po-210 contamination response Hotels, airplanes, restaurants contaminated Hotels, airplanes, restaurants contaminated Monitoring to address public concerns Monitoring to address public concerns Established criteria Established criteria Typical instruments cannot detect alphaTypical instruments cannot detect alpha Tracked the spread of contamination by monitoring touch points (light switches)Tracked the spread of contamination by monitoring touch points (light switches) Analysis took months and used most of the UK’s resources Analysis took months and used most of the UK’s resources Module IX.2 - Types of Events

22. 22 Possible Radiological Hazards l External irradiation l Internal contamination through inhalation or ingestion Module IX.2 - Types of Events

23. 23 Possible Health Consequences l Acute radiation syndrome l Local burns l Combined injuries l Death l Increased risk of late effects (e.g. cancer) Module IX.2 - Types of Events

24. 24 Other Potential Consequences l Environmental l Economic losses l Psychological l Legal Module IX.2 - Types of Events

25. 25 Historical Facts l When did a radiological accident first happen n Radiological accidents started with the discovery of radiation – early mishaps occurred shortly after the discovery of x-rays and radioactivity in 1895 n First case of skin injury due to radiation: 1896 Module IX.2 - Types of Events

26. 26 However l Radiation does not cause: n Immediate death n Immediate burns, wounds l Irradiation alone is not a medical emergency Module IX.2 - Types of Events

27. 27 Statistics From 1945 to March 2009: n 278 major accidents n 2,035 significantly exposed n 173 fatalities Module IX.2 - Types of Events

28. 28 Major Radiation Accidents The 278 major radiation accidents include: Nuclear45 Industry100 Research19 Medicine43 Orphan sources47 Transportation24 Module IX.2 - Types of Events

29. 29 More Statistics Module IX.2 - Types of Events

30. 30 Radiation Devices l Sealed sources: 154 l Accelerators & X-ray devices: 55 The most frequent accidents involve sealed sources. Luckily, these are also the potentially least severe accidents. However, sealed sources can be tampered with, resulting in more significant consequences, and luck is not an element of adequate emergency preparedness! Module IX.2 - Types of Events

31. 31 Summary l Radiation accidents can happen l Serious radiological consequences are rare but they can occur n Stochastic effects n Severe injuries n Death l Therefore, emergency response plans are required Module IX.2 - Types of Events

32. 32 Where to Get More Information l Generic Procedures for Assessment and Response During a Radiological Emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000) l Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-R-2, (2002). l Arrangements for Preparedness for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-G-2.1, (2007). Module IX.2 - Types of Events