1. Aspects of Behavioral Conditioning History of Systems Psychology PSY401 Tiffany Jubb, Joe Milillo, Jen Mislinski, and Cesar Monzon

2. Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning is the ability to associate a predictive stimuli with a subsequent important event. These behaviors are primarily automatic. (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) Operant conditioning (goal-oriented) is the ability to associate an expressed behavior with its consequences. These behaviors are primarily voluntary in order to learn. (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) Both classical and operant conditioning are allow for a predictive understanding of changing environment (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). Though both are operationally different, there is a question of difference or similarity in terms of mechanisms in the brain (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). Joe Milillo

3. Classical and Operant Conditioning (cont.) Research has been finding reasons to believe that these two forms of associative learning do differ at the cellular level (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005) Interesting similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning are being found. An important similarity is the reinforcement pathway in which dopamine is the common mediator for both forms of learning (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). At a cellular level, both types share the same locus (specific location of a gene) for changes that occur, but had opposite neuron plateau potentials, exhibiting a major difference at this level (Lorenzetti, Mozzachiodi, Baxter & Byrne, 2005). Joe Milillo

4. Operant Conditioning and Applied Behavior Analysis Applied behavior analysis (ABA) was established in the second half of the 20 th century and is based upon the operant conditioning principles of B.F. Skinner (Ringdahl, Kopelman & Falcomata, 2010). Operant principles are applied in ABA by examining how events or consequences that follow a specific behavior strengthen or weaken that behavior (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). One important principle of operant conditioning is the use of reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs when there is an change in a behavior as a consequence of an event that follows the behavior. That is a response is altered when found to create a consequence that desirable (either positive or negative/ increase or decrease) (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). Joe Milillo

5. Operant Conditioning and Applied Behavior Analysis (cont.) ABA is considered a science and has been effectively used by clinicians with children suffering from Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in modifying socially significant behaviors (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). ABA is even being studied to improve behaviors of those with ASD in various settings such as a dentists offices (Hernandez & Ikkanda, 2011). Research is still needed. Important areas are comparisons of ABA with psychopharmacology treatments for ASD, as well as ABA interventions and adults with AS (Matson, Turygin, Bieghley, Rieske, Tureck & Matson). Joe Milillo

6. Neuro-evolution and Operant Conditioning Operant condition is learning to initiate a behavior in order to gain a reward. This form of learning has been found to rely on the basil ganglia, and has been carried out by animals since it has directly survival value (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009). By understanding memory’s role in survival there are clear benefits each type of memory the brain utilizes. All three layers of basil ganglia (dorsal striatum, striosomes, ventral striatum) were utilized in operant learning, as well as the dopamine-reward system (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009). Joe Milillo

7. Neuro-evolution and Operant Conditioning Dopamine was released when an unexpected reward was achieved and then found to be released pre-condition stimulus, when the reward was expected (Meeter, Veldkamp & Jin, 2009). Neuro-evolution of operant reward learning is also affected by surroundings. It can be fostered by environments where varying or exploring behavior (behavior novelty) is associated with low risk (Soltoggio & Jones, 2009). Joe Milillo

8. Video Commentary I think that skinner makes some really nice points about how goal- oriented behavior is learnt. This is not to say that all behavior is learnt that way. As I found while making my slides, there are many different forms of learning which use different memory stores. I would say in the Skinner/Chomsky debate that each makes valid points and it is a combination of both. Certainly we learnt certain verbal responses or cues that goal-oriented, but as Chomsky puts forward stimulus and response cannot be enough to explain complex behavior. Language is a higher-brain function and is being studied in-depth even through cognitive psychology and neuroimaging. It is a complex function that cannot be simplied to mere condition stimuli. One example which Chomsky gives is the speed which children can learn a language even with little resource available. So it seems that while learning to use language in an operant way should not be confused with the complex functioning that language is, both in usage and learning. Joe Milillo

9. References Hernandez, P., & Ikkanda, Z. (2011). Applied behavior analysis. The Journal of the American Dental Association, 142(3), 281. Lorenzetti, F. D., Mozzachiodi, R., Baxter, D. A., & Byrne, J. H. (2005). Classical and operant conditioning differentially modify the intrinsic properties of an identified neuron. Nature neuroscience, 9(1), 17-19. Matson, J. L., Turygin, N. C., Beighley, J., Rieske, R., Tureck, K., & Matson, M. L. Applied behavior analysis in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Recent developments, strengths, and pitfalls. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, In Press, Corrected Proof. doi: 10.1016/j.rasd.2011.03.014 Meeter, M., Veldkamp, R., & Jin, Y. (2009). Multiple memory stores and operant conditioning: A rationale for memory's complexity. Brain and cognition, 69(1), 200-208. Ringdahl, J. E., Kopelman, T., & Falcomata, T. S. (2010). Applied Behavior Analysis and Its Application to Autism and Autism Related Disorders. Applied Behavior Analysis for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders, 15-32. Soltoggio, A., & Jones, B. (2009). Novelty of behaviour as a basis for the neuro-evolution of operant reward learning. In Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference Joe Milillo

10. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety Parsons and Rizzo, 2007, explored outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias. VRET (virtual reality exposure therapy) is a therapy that uses a computer simulation/virtual environment and immerses the user in a particular setting The researchers collected 21 articles that used virtual reality treatment in their studies for people suffering from anxiety or other similar disorders (such as phobias) and meta analyzed the data. After analyzing all of the data, Parsons and Rizzo, 2007 found that VRET is an effective way to treat those people suffering from anxiety, by reducing symptoms. Jennifer Mislinski

11. Behavior Modification and Behavioral Therapy B.F. Skinner was one of the most influential researchers in behavior modification He is the founder of operant conditioning Behavioral therapy is based on the notion of operant conditioning and is a therapeutic treatment, especially for those who suffer from anxiety (as well as other disorders) This therapy focuses mainly on exposure and escape behaviors and trying to extinguish them When a person is feeling anxious, they usually escape the situation, but behavioral therapy teaches the person to stay in the situation until the anxious feelings subside Jennifer Mislinski

12. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety Barlow, Cerny, Klosko, and Tassinari, 1990 looked at the effectiveness of Behavior Therapy and the medication alprazolam in people with Panic Disorder The researchers selected participants that were between ages 18 and 65 and who were visiting the Phobia and Anxiety Disorders clinic at SUNY Albany. They also included participants who had mild to severe agoraphobic avoidance. There was a total of four groups; a medication group (alprazolam), a placebo group, a behavior therapy group, and a waitlist group 57 out of 69 initial subjects completed the study (12 dropped out and most came from the placebo group) Jennifer Mislinski

13. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety Barlow, Cerny, Klosko, and Tassinari, 1990 discovered that over 85% of people who participated in the behavior therapy group were panic free after a 2 week period at the end of treatment Those in the behavior therapy group did significantly better than those in the placebo or waiting list groups The researchers also found that the medication alprazolam group was not significantly different than the behavior therapy. This study shows that the combination of alprazolam and behavior therapy may possibly work better than any other types of therapy, but also that behavior therapy is an effective way to treat those with anxiety Jennifer Mislinski

14. Behavioral Therapy and Anxiety CBT is a combination of cognitive and behavioral therapy.. Kendall and Southam-Gerow, 1996 reported a long-term follow up of CBT for anxiety-disordered youth. Participants in the study were clients who completed treatment at the Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders Clinic (CAADC) at Temple University at least two year prior to the study. 36 girls and boys participated in the study After assessing the children's well being, the researchers found that the adolescents had mostly maintained the gains they made in treatment 2-5 years earlier The children were also successful in their maintenance of treatment Jennifer Mislinski

15. References o Kendall, P., & Southam-Gerow, M. (1996). Long-term follow-up of a cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disordered youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 724-730. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. o Klosko, J., Barlow, D., Tassinari, R., & Cerny, J. (1990). A comparison of alprazolam and behavior therapy in treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 77-84. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. o Parsons, T., & Rizzo, A. (2008). Affective outcomes of virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety and specific phobias: A menta-analysis. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 250-261. Retrieved May 24, 2011, from the PsychInfo database. Jennifer Mislinski

16. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement The use of reinforcement has been the basis of behavior modification for many research studies. It is important to note the difference between positive and negative reinforcement: o Positive reinforcement = addition of a stimulus o Negative reinforcement = removal of a stimulus Examples: o Positive reinforcement: food presentation Negative reinforcement: food deprivation o Positive reinforcement: giving a shock Negative reinforcement: escaping a shock (Iwata, 2006) Tiffany Jubb

17. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: Research Studies have been conducted to examine the efficacy of positive and negative reinforcement in escape-maintained behavior. In these studies, the behaviors of individuals whose destructive behaviors were maintained through escape were modified through positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or a combination of both. Tiffany Jubb

18. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: a Study In this study, a 10-year old autistic child, Samantha, with destructive, aggressive, and self- injurious behaviors was required to complete tasks while behaviors were observed. In the first part of the study, when Samantha completed the required tasks, she was rewarded with either a 30 second break (negative reinforcement) or a potato chip (positive reinforcement). During this portion, task completion and appropriate behaviors increased only in the positive reinforcement condition. (DeLeon, Neidert, Anders, & Rodriguez-Catter, 2001) Tiffany Jubb

19. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: a Study In the second part of the study, consecutive task completions gradually increased. When tasks were completed, Samantha was given the choice of receiving a potato chip or a 30 second break from her assignments. The results showed that up until the 10 consecutive task set, Samantha consistently chose positive reinforcement when tasks were completed. Samantha’s negative behaviors were low until this set, but after being required to complete 10 tasks consecutively multiple times, her negative behaviors increased and her preference towards positive reinforcement shifted to preference towards negative reinforcement. (DeLeon, Neidert, Anders, & Rodriguez-Catter, 2001) Tiffany Jubb

20. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: a Study The researchers concluded that initially, positive reinforcement was more effective and preferred by Samantha because the potato chip held a higher value than a 30 second break in task completion. However, after being required to consecutively complete more than one task, the 30 second break became more valuable than a potato chip at the 10 task set. (DeLeon, Neidert, Anders, & Rodriguez-Catter, 2001) Tiffany Jubb

21. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: Another Study In this study, researchers observed a 19-year old male with profound mental retardation and who displayed destructive and aggressive behaviors. The participant was required to complete self-care tasks, such as wiping his face, washing his hands, and putting on or removing his jacket and shoes. When a task was completed, the participant received a high-preference positive reinforcer, ie. cookies, soda, stickers, or 20 seconds of listening to music. The participant received a 30 second break (negative reinforcement) when he displayed destructive behaviors. (Carter, 2010) Tiffany Jubb

22. Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement: Another Study For baseline measures, the researchers found that the participant’s destructive behaviors were maintained when he was able to escape from self- care tasks. The results of the study showed that the participant’s destructive behaviors decreased and compliance increased throughout the experiment as a result of the use of positive reinforcement. Although the participant was presented with the option of escape behavior (the 30 second break), the participant instead showed task compliance when rewarded with a high-preference reinforcer. (Carter, 2010) Tiffany Jubb

23. Commentary: Skinner and reinforcement After considering positive and negative reinforcement, I found it interesting that Skinner stated the most influential reinforcers are those that are beneficial to survival. He goes on to speak of sugar as a reinforcer, and how its appeal leads to overeating and weight gain. As time has passed, it appears that reinforcement has shifted, even in Skinner’s time, from survival to pleasure. Items such as cookies, soda, and stickers were the most reinforcing elements of the aforementioned experiments. Tiffany Jubb

24. References Carter, S.L. (2010). A comparison of various forms of reinforcement with and without extinction as treatment for escape-maintained problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(3), 543-546. DeLeon, I.G., Neidert, P.L., Anders, B.M., & Rodriguez-Catter, V. (2001). Choices between positive and negative reinforcement during treatment for escape-maintained behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(4), 521-525. Iwata, B.A. (2006). On the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement. The Behavior Analyst, 29(1), 121-123. Tiffany Jubb

25. Cesar Monzon Psychotherapy can be used to treat unexplained dizziness. This dizziness cannot be medically explained or related to any psychiatric disorder (Schmid, Henningsen, Dieterich, Sattel, & Lahmann, 2011).. An overview of many research studies has shown that unexplained dizziness can be treated to some degree with CBT (Schmid, Henningsen, Dieterich, Sattel, & Lahmann, 2011).. The Power of Psychotherapy

26. Cesar Monzon Cognitive behavioral therapy aimed at triggers, thoughts, arousal, behavior and exposure during dizziness as well as relaxation techniques has been shown to lessen the effects of this dizziness in these individuals with medically/psychiatrically unexplainable dizziness (Schmid, Henningsen, Dieterich, Sattel, & Lahmann, 2011). Unexplained Dizziness and CBT

27. Cesar Monzon Depression is common in cancer patients occurring in 25-30% of them(Brothers, Yang, Strunk, & Anderson, 2011). Fatigue and general quality of life are impacted by depression but CBT can combat this effects in most cases(Brothers, Yang, Strunk, & Anderson, 2011). Constant CBT treatment with individuals with cancer has shown very significant effects but sadly remission of the major depression also occurs at a very high rate even with treatment(Brothers, Yang, Strunk, & Anderson, 2011. Cancer Patients and CBT

28. Cesar Monzon Emotional Intelligence is defined as " an individual's ability to reason with emotion across all domans, and to use emotions in adaptive ways"(Kaplowitz, Safran, & Muran, 2011). Your therapist's abilities and methods of handling their own emotions are significant in determining how well they help you with yours(Kaplowitz, Safran, & Muran, 2011). Emotional Intelligence

29. Cesar Monzon Therapist characterists have some sort of influence on patient success outside of what methods they may be using (Kaplowitz, Safran, & Muran, 2011). A theraptists emotional intelligence may change how the therapist structures treatment and the strategy in which they take to apply psychological research to their patients needs (Kaplowitz, Safran, & Muran, 2011). Therapist and your Results

30. References Brothers, B. M., Yang, H., Strunk, D.R., & Anderson, B.L. (2011). Cancer patients with major depressive disorder: testing a biobehavioral/cognitive behavior intervention. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(2), 253-260. Kaplowitz, M.J., Safran, J.D., & Muran, C.J. (2011). Impact of therapist emotional intelligence on psychotherapy. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 199(2), 74-84. Schmid, G., Henningsen, P., Dieterich, M., Sattel, H., & Lahmann, C. (2011). Psychotherapy in dizziness: a systematic review. Journal of Nuerology and Nuerosurgery Psychiatry, 82, 601-606. Cesar Monzon