1. Abdul Hamid II 1876 – 1909

2. Reaction to modernization Islam could not be flawed -> fault with Muslims: – French knowers/Western educated elite targeted, but also – Self-criticism of Muslim intellectuals and political activists Reassertion of Islamic values

3. Territorial losses Abdul Hamid accepted losses of the “peripheries” of the empire; the Balkans, Tunisia and Egypt Retained the core territory of the empire; consolidation (e.g. fought to keep Armenia)

4. Authoritarian reform Abdul Hamid II suspended the constitution in 1878 Control of government moved back to the royal palace Expanded powers of the central government Political and intellectual restrictions

5. Tanzimat vs Abdul Hamid II Western inspired reforms Secularism Ottomanism Stress on Islamic heritage Catered to religious establishment Pan-Islam The caliphate; protector of all Muslims

6. Continuity Improvement of financial system a priority, but empire still ended up bankrupt  Europeans in control of finances Educational reforms continued; number of schools and teachers doubled Infrastructure further developed: 6 x roads, 3 x rail tracks, telegraph x 3; mining; agricultural export increased; local industry Centralization of control tightened Closer relationship with Germany

7. Authoritarian rule Strict censorship of press, school curricula and public discussions Secret police and spies  Imprisonment or exile of leading officials and intellectuals; formed opposition groups Higher educational institutions breeding grounds for discontent

8. Separatist movements Ruthless suppression of nationalist movement Armenian community targeted

9. Abdul Hamid’s demise Caused by: – Economic pressures – Foreign interference – Autocratic rule – Loss of army’s support