1. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 1 12—The Self and Identity Self-Understanding Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Identity Summary

2. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 2 Self-Understanding What Is Self-Understanding? –A child’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of child’s self- conceptions. A child’s self-understanding is based, in part, on the various roles and membership categories that define who children are. Self-understanding provides the rational underpinnings of personal identity.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 3 Self-Understanding Developmental Changes –Infancy Using the mirror technique, researchers have found that a rudimentary self-understanding called self- recognition begins to develop at approximately 18 months of age. –Early Childhood In early childhood, children tend to confuse self, mind, and body, and usually describe themselves in terms of a physical self or an active self.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 4 Self-Understanding The Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy Refer to Figure 12.1

5. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 5 Self-Understanding Developmental Changes (continued) –Middle and Late Childhood In middle and late childhood, self-understanding increasingly shifts from defining oneself through external characteristics to defining oneself through internal characteristics. Elementary-school-age children are more likely to define themselves in terms of social characteristics and social comparison, establishing their differences as an individual apart from others.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 6 Self-Understanding Developmental Changes (continued) –Adolescence Although adolescents increasingly compare themselves with others, they deny doing so. Harter (1998, 1999) describes how adolescents’ multifaceted self-understanding differs from that of a child: –Abstract and idealistic –Self-consciousness –The fluctuating self

7. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 7 Self-Understanding –Adolescence (continued) –Harter (continued): –Real and ideal –Self-integration Possible self: What an individual might become, what the person would like to become, and what the person is afraid of becoming.

8. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 8 Self-Understanding Perspective Taking The ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings. Perspective taking develops through five stages, ranging from 3 years of age (the egocentric viewpoint) through adolescence (in-depth perspective taking) (Selman, 1980). Perspective taking increases self-understanding and improves peer group status and the quality of friendships.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 9 Self-Understanding Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking Refer to Figure 12.2

10. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 10 Self-Understanding Sociocultural Contexts –As the child grows up and constructs multiple selves, self-understanding can vary across relationships and social roles. –Selves emerge as individuals adapt to their cultural environments; selves are culture-specific (Markus et al., 1999). Adolescents may create multiple selves based on their ethnic background; those who navigate effectively between different cultures can develop multicultural selves and become “culture brokers” for others.

11. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 11 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 Discuss self-understanding and its development –Review What is self-understanding? How does self-understanding change from infancy through adolescence? What role does perspective taking play in self- understanding? How are sociocultural contexts involved in self- understanding?

12. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 12 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 1 –Reflect If a psychologist had interviewed you at 10 and at 16 years of age, how would your self-understanding have been different?

13. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 13 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? –Self-esteem A person’s global evaluation of the self; also called self-worth or self-image. –Self-concept Domain-specific evaluations of the self. Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality.

14. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 14 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Evaluating Self-Esteem Refer to Figure 12.3

15. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 15 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Assessment –Measuring self-esteem and self-concept is not easy, thus there are many different measures. –Harter’s (1985) Self-Perception Profile for Children (for third- to sixth-grade children) taps general self- worth plus self-concept for five specific domains; the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents assesses global self-worth and eight domains. –Self-esteem has a strong tie with self-perception in the domain of physical appearance across the life span.

16. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 16 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Correlations between Global Self-Esteem and Self-Evaluations of Domains of Competence Refer to Figure 12.4

17. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 17 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Developmental Changes –Self-esteem is high in childhood, declines in adolescence, and increases in adulthood until late adulthood, when it declines again (Robins et al., 2002); other researchers believe that the adolescent drop is very slight (Harter, 2002; Kling et al., 1999). –The self-esteem of females is lower than that of males throughout the life span, but the average score for adolescents girls is still higher than the neutral point. –Cohort effects influence adolescents’ self-esteem.

18. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 18 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Self-Esteem across the Life Span Refer to Figure 12.5

19. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 19 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Variations in Self-Esteem –There are only moderate correlations between school performance and self-esteem, and efforts to increase students’ self-esteem do not always lead to improved school performance. –The greater initiative of children with high self-esteem can produce positive OR negative outcomes. –High correlations between self-esteem and happiness suggest that high self-esteem increases happiness. –Low self-esteem is linked to depression, suicide attempts, and anorexia nervosa.

20. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 20 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Variations in Self-Esteem (continued) –Parental attributes associated with boys’ high self- esteem (Coopersmith, 1967): Expression of affection Concern about the child’s problems Harmony in the home Participation in joint family activities Competent, organized help when needed Setting and abiding by clear and fair rules Allowing freedom within well-prescribed limits

21. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 21 Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem 1. Identify the domains of competence important to the child. 2. Provide motional support and social approval. 3. Recognize achievement. 4. Encourage coping skills.

22. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 22 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 Explain self-esteem and self-concept –Review What are self-esteem and self-concept? How are self-esteem and self-concept assessed? How is self-esteem linked with age? What are some variations in self-esteem and how are they linked to children’s development? What role do parent-child relationships play in self-esteem?

23. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 23 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 2 –Reflect What behaviors would you look for when observing a child to give you an indication that a child has low or high self-esteem?

24. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 24 Identity What Is Identity? –Identity is a self-portrait composed of many bits and pieces developed over a lengthy period, including: Vocational/career identity Political identity Religious identity Relationship identity Achievement/Intellectual identity Sexual identity Cultural/Ethnic identity Interest, personality, and physical identity

25. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 25 Identity Erikson’s View –Identity versus identity confusion: Erik Erikson’s fifth developmental stage (adolescence) during which adolescents are faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. –Psychosocial moratorium: Erikson’s term for the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy during which society leaves adolescents relatively free of responsibility and free to try out different identities.

26. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 26 Identity Erikson’s View (continued) –Youth who successfully cope with their conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self that is refreshing and acceptable; those who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis suffer what Erikson calls identity confusion.

27. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 27 Identity Developmental Changes –Identity begins with the appearance of attachment, the development of the sense of self, and the emergence of independence in infancy, and reaches its final phase with a life review and integration in old age. –Adolescence is the first time that physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development advance to the point at which the individual can sort through and synthesize childhood identities and identifications to move toward adult maturity.

28. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 28 Identity Identity Statuses –Crisis A period of identity development during which the adolescent is exploring alternatives (many researchers use the term exploration). –Commitment Personal investment in identity.

29. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 29 Identity Identity Statuses (continued) –Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity Identity diffusion –The status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. Identity foreclosure –The status of individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis.

30. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 30 Identity –Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity (continued) Identity moratorium –The status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or only vaguely defined. Identity achievement –The status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.

31. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 31 Identity Marcia’s Four Statuses of Identity Refer to Figure 12.6

32. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 32 Identity Exploring Your Identity Refer to Figure 12.7

33. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 33 Identity Identity Statuses (continued) –In Marcia’s terms, young adolescents are primarily in the identity statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium. –Beyond Erikson: Some researchers believe the most important identity changes do not take place until emerging adulthood. A common pattern of individuals who develop positive identities follows the MAMA cycle of moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement, repeated throughout life.

34. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 34 Identity Social Contexts –Family Influences Democratic parents who encourage adolescents to participate in family decision making foster identity achievement. Autocratic parents who control the adolescent’s behavior encourage identity foreclosure. Permissive parents who provide little guidance and allow adolescents to make their own decisions promote identity diffusion.

35. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 35 Identity Family Influences (continued) Individuality consists of two dimensions: self- assertion, the ability to have and communicate a point of view; and separateness, the use of communication patterns to express how one is different from others. Connectedness consists of two dimensions: mutuality, sensitivity to and respect for others’ views; and permeability, openness to others’ views.

36. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 36 Identity Social Contexts (continued) –Culture and Ethnicity Ethnic identity: An enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership (Phinney, 1996). Many aspects of sociocultural contexts influence ethnic identity, such as membership in a minority group, which generation of immigrants one belongs to, broad social factors, and the immediate contexts in which ethnic minority youth live.

37. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 37 Identity Social Contexts (continued) –Gender Erikson believed that males’ aspirations are mainly oriented toward career and ideological commitments, and females’ are centered around marriage and childbearing. In today’s world, the options for females have increased and thus can be confusing and conflicting, especially for females who hope for successful integration of family and career roles.

38. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 38 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 Describe identity and its development –Review What is identity? What is Erikson’s view of identity? How do individuals develop their identity? What are the identity statuses that can be used to classify individuals? How do the social contexts of family, culture and ethnicity, and gender influence identity?

39. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 39 Review and Reflect: Learning Goal 3 –Reflect Do you think that your parents influenced your identity development? If so, how?

40. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 40 Summary Self-understanding is a child’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of the child’s self- conceptions. Infants develop a rudimentary form of self-recognition at approximately 18 months of age. The internal self, the social self, and the socially comparative self become more prominent in middle and late childhood; adolescents tend to engage in more social comparison, and their self-understanding often fluctuates as they construct multiple selves.

41. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 41 Summary Perspective taking is the ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand that person’s thoughts and feelings. Selman proposed a developmental theory of perspective taking that has five stages, ranging from 3 years of age through adolescence. Selves emerge as individuals adapt to their cultural environment.

42. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 42 Summary Self-esteem, also referred to as self-worth or self- image, is the global, evaluative dimension of the self. Harter’s measures assess self-evaluations in different skill domains as well as general self- worth. Self-esteem drops in adolescence, more so for girls than boys, but there is controversy about how extensively self-esteem varies with age.

43. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 43 Summary Researchers have found only moderate correlations between self-esteem and school performance. Individuals with high self-esteem have greater initiative than those with low self-esteem, although this can produce either positive or negative outcomes. Self-esteem is related to perceived physical appearance and happiness.

44. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 44 Summary Low self-esteem is linked with depression, suicide, and anorexia nervosa. In Coopersmith’s study, children’s self- esteem was associated with parental acceptance and allowing children freedom within well-prescribed limits.

45. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 45 Summary Identity development is complex and is done in bits and pieces. Erikson argues that identity versus identity confusion is the fifth stage of the human life span, which individuals experience during adolescence. Identity development begins during infancy and continues through old age.

46. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 46 Summary James Marcia proposed four identity statuses— identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement—that are based on crisis (exploration) and commitment. The main changes in identity may occur in emerging adulthood rather than adolescence, or may follow a MAMA cycle of moratorium- achievement-moratorium-achievement. Parents are important figures in adolescents’ identity development.

47. McGraw-Hill © 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.. Slide 47 Summary Democratic parenting facilitates identity development; autocratic and permissive parenting do not. Throughout the world ethnic minority groups have struggled to maintain their identities while blending into the majority culture. Erikson said that adolescent males have a stronger vocational identity and adolescent females have a stronger social identity; other researchers believe gender differences in identity are disappearing.