1. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 DUST They are 2 levels of refinement in soil dust parameterisation. 1)For large and global scales typical datasets used to derive a flux are: - Local roughness height, - Threshold velocity or friction threshold velocity 2) Regional scale emission models

2. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 The horizontal flux is then computed as: D p, is the particle diameter of soil particles, C(D p ) is the emission factor (kg.s2. m-5), q s, is the soil wetness; A wind attenuation factor, z 0 is the local roughness height, is the soil grain density, accounts for crusted surfaces; u* represents the friction velocity and u*th, the threshold friction velocity.

3. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Kurosaki and Mikami, 2004

4. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Maximum monthly dust outbreak frequency during Jan. 1993 to Jun. 2002

5. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Monthly dust outbreak frequency and strong wind frequency from Jan. 1993 to Jun. 2002

6. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Simple model of dust uptake from soils. F = C. u 2.(u -u thresh ) Determination of the threshold velocity: Regosols,Lithosols Xerosols Based upon the work of Marticorena (1995) Other soil types

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8. REGIONS GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION For the comparison with TOMS Emission Factor C ( g.s 2 m -5 ) Sahara Latitudes: 14°N and 30°N Longitudes: 10°W and 28°E 0.37 Sahel Lat.: 9°N :14°N, Long.: 15°W :10°E 0.28 Takla-Makan Lat.: 37°N :42°N, Long.: 75°E :90°E 1.80 Gobi Lat.: 39°N :45°N, Long.: 95°E :110°E 0.15 Kyzil Kum Lat.: 35°N : 43°N, Long.: 55°E : 63°E 0.17 Kara Kum Lat.: 35°N : 43°N, Long.: 64°E : 68°E 0.34 Kalahari Lat.: 19°S : 30°S, Long.: 18°E : 26°E 0.25 USA Lat.: 33°N :40°N, Long.: 118°W :108°W 0.32 Saudi Arabia Lat.: 15°N : 25°N, Long.: 43°E : 57°E 0.17 Thar Desert Lat.: 22°N : 27°N, Long.: 70°E-78°E 1.57 Australia Lat.: 23°S : 30°S, Long.: 120°E : 142°E 0.08 Somalia Lat.: 5°N : 10°N, Long.: 45°E : 53°E 0.04

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10. Satellite derived optical depth used to determine the emission strength of the different regions InstrumentTime Periodresolution used TOMS 1979-2001 1°x1° MISR 2000-2002 1°x1°

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12. Preferred dust sources Dry lake beds: Bodele depression, Lake Tchad Map of closed topographic depressions from HYDRA, [Coe, 1998], resolution 5x5 Maximum extent determined by running the model with unlimited precipitation

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14. Detailed parametrisations for Desert Dust They are limited in space (for example work of Shao over Australia) due to the information on soils that is needed on the local scale Shao, Y., 2001: A model for mineral dust emission. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 20239 -20254.

15. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 SEASALT size spectrum The bubble thin liquid cap bursts and shatters into many small droplets. Produced by the collapse of a spherical cavity after bursting. Jet Drops: Wind speed > 8-10 m/s tear wave crests and inject large spume drops Film Drops: Spume Drops: 1 3 2 4 r ( m) 5001001010.1

16. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 International SeaSpray Workshop 11-13 MAY 2004 Skipton, UK Goal: Toward a Universal Sea Spray Source Function Specific objectives Assess the current state of knowledge of sea spray particle fluxes over all sizes of interest and under a wide range of environmental conditions. Construct a qualitative assessment of the discrepancies between different sea spray source functions available in the literature in terms of: - environmental conditions, e.g. warm/cold sea, cyclonic/trade wind conditions, biological activity etc - particle flux measurement methods - flux -profile, equilibrium balance, box methods - experimental techniques – optical particle counters, 3-D wind field measurements etc, Develop a strategy for reconciling these discrepancies by experimental approaches to the measurement of sea spray fluxes taking account of recent improvements in measurement techniques and instruments, Consider the ways in which modelling and computational improvements may assist in resolving the differences between sea spray flux estimates.

17. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Sea Spray Source Function (S3F) The major role of wind speed in defining the S3F (sea spray source function) was recognized but the remaining wide variation in flux estimates point to the significance of other factors in determining the S3F. Other factors include wave breaking phenomena, the presence of organics and surfactants on the ocean surface (plus other biological activities), as well as water temperature, the degree of gas saturation in the surface waters and the impacts of rain, sea state, atmospheric forcing and near-surface stratification, etc. At moderate and high winds, surfactant layers (or viscous sublayers, or the sea surface microlayer) are less likely to be present but many broader wind-wave influences may come into play, such as swell and wave steepness, arising from changes in relative wind-wave vectors. Most previous studies have focused on bubble bursting processes resulting from ocean whitecaps but there is a need to investigate spume production processes which become significant at winds above about 9 ms-1. Organic compounds were seen as a much-neglected component of the sea spray aerosol, which were likely to exert significant influences on sea spray particle microphysics by modifying the surface tension and accommodation coefficients (and, hence, possibly their cloud droplet nucleating capabilities).

18. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Small Sea Salt Particles Many previous studies of S3F have concentrated upon particles larger than about 1µm because of the impact of these particles upon the sea-air exchange of heat, moisture and momentum, as well as their direct effect upon atmospheric turbidity, especially close to the ocean surface. However, recent studies have shown the importance of sub-micron sea spray particles in the microphysical and radiative properties of clouds, while field measurements have indicated that sea spray particles down to 10nm or so may be generated. The development of global climate models with the requisite accuracy to determine future climate trends demands that the production and fate of these sub-micron particles be defined to a much higher level of accuracy than currently pertains

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20. A Universal Source Function It became clear that different applications of the S3F focused on distinct particle size ranges and formation conditions. The extent to which a universal function was required was questioned. Clearly, defining the source function at the air-ocean interface was necessary to achieve a full process-level knowledge but, for many applications, an effective source function within (or at the top of) the surface layer was sufficient. This discussion led to a consideration of particle concentration gradients within the surface layer where the paucity of measurements meant that agreement on even the shape of this profile could not be established.

21. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 NADP SITES FOR DEPOSITION National Atmospheric Deposition Program

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23. Uniformity of Whitecap Productivity in Open Ocean, Surf Zone and Laboratory Measurements The costs and technical difficulties associated with making long term measurements of sea spray production over the ocean have resulted in many studies being undertaken on- shore or from fixed structures in shallow waters. The extent to which such observations could be normalised to provide a general S3F was discussed and it was agreed that such extrapolations may be feasible, taking into account sea state and other factors, though the supporting evidence was somewhat weak at present. Laboratory measurements of whitecap productivity which, in principle, could be allied to large scale ocean whitecap measurements to provide values of S3F raised similar concerns, though this type of formulation has been amongst the most successful so far. The potential for linking this approach to large scale observations from satellites made it especially attractive, though validation efforts were required to establish appropriate levels of accuracy. Also, spume production, as well as splash and other secondary processes, may not be linked readily to whitecap area estimates.

24. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Near-Surface Processes There was general agreement that the physics of sea spray production from whitecap bubbles was reasonably well-understood and there were increasing insights into the spume production process. However, a detailed understanding of the interplay between sea spray and the atmosphere close to the ocean surface was poorly understood, predominantly because of the difficulties of undertaking measurements in this region. Improved understanding is required of, for example, the effective injection height of the spray droplets and their vertical profile and deposition velocities close to the surface. Determining whether spume production of aerosol scales linearly with wave energy would be a major step forward in our understanding, which would be extremely useful in enabling the estimation of spume droplet fluxes from remote sensing and other techniques. The interplay between the larger spray droplets and the near-surface atmosphere was also important, especially at very high winds, since it influenced the exchange of moisture and hence heat energy balances between ocean and atmosphere. Improved understanding of these processes was vital for the accurate modelling of hurricane and tropical storm development.

25. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Experimental Strategies, Instrumentation and Validation A general view was expressed that too many field projects had been marred by insufficient time being spent in the calibration and intercomparison of instruments, especially with regard to the measurements of particle spectra and concentrations. The design of suitable intakes, instrument orientation and siting each needed serious consideration of the performance of such instruments was not to be compromised. This discussion led on to a more general consideration of whether existing data from many different instruments and of various parameters could be reconciled. Several participants could point to studies where such reconciliation had been achieved. For example, studies in Hawaii of particle spectra measured with optical particle counters showed good agreement with nephelometer measurements of atmospheric scattering and of particle mass from filter samples. Similarly, particle spectra derived from sun photometer measurements of aerosol optical depth showed good agreement with in-situ observations provided that the vertical distribution of the aerosol was not inordinately complicated by elevated particle layers.

26. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Long-term Monitoring The need for monitoring sea spray loadings (and other aerosols) over extended periods was highlighted. In general, most current instrumentation was too complex to be operated over long periods without regular attention and maintenance but these problems needed to be tackled if data products emerging from remote sensing, such as MODIS aerosol retrievals, were to be adequately validated.

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28. Reconciling Measurements and Models As global and synoptic modelling of aerosol loadings develops, there is a growing need for comparisons between predicted and observed aerosol loadings. It was noted that discrepancies between sea spray estimates from remote sensing and the results from global models were most significant in the southern oceans where such aerosols often dominated the atmospheric loadings. One participant commented that wave modeling was being incorporated into NWS models, raising the prospect that wave dissipation information may soon be available from such models. This point generated a discussion regarding the optimum forcing parameter for determining the S3F. Up to the present, the standard 10m wind speed has been predominantly utilized but was unlikely to be ideal bearing in mind the additional influences upon S3F mentioned in the first paragraph of this section. Whitecap fraction might offer improvements but could not readily account for spume production, whilst the use of wave dissipation offered some advantages but did not cover the influence of water temperature or the presence of organics and surfactants.

29. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 - AEROCOM MODEL INTERCOMPARISON - SEASALT OPTICAL DEPTH FOR THE YEAR 2000 ( comments please mailto: schulz - @ - cea - fr --and-- textor - @ - lsce - saclay - cea - fr) Authors Web Interface and Visualisation: Michael Schulz and Christiane Textor

30. GEMS kickoff meeting - Hamburg - 5- 6th JULY 2005 Calcite in the clay fraction Hematite in the silt fraction Claquin et al. (1999) (% of mass )