1. PERSONALITY

2. Distinctive and stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterize an individual over time.

3. Trait A characteristic of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

4. Overview Psychodynamic influences Genetic influences Environmental influences Cultural influences Humanistic influences

5. Psychodynamic Theories Theories that explain behavior and personality in terms of unconscious energy dynamics within the individual.

6. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the first psychodynamic theory. Freud’s theory and the theories of his followers are called psychodynamic theories.

7. Elements Shared by all Psychodynamic Theories Based on intra-psychic dynamics. Adult behavior and problems determined primarily by early childhood experiences. Psychological development occurs in stages. Unconscious fantasies and symbols are main influences on personality and behavior.

8. Freud and Psychoanalysis Freud believed that unconscious forces have more power to control behavior than conscious thought. The unconscious reveals itself in:  Free association  Slips of the tongue  Dreams The Royal Road to the Unconscious

9. Personality is made up of 3 Systems 3 systems are balanced in a healthy personality  Id Operates according to the pleasure principle. Contains the life (sexual) instinct that is fueled by libido and death (aggressive) instincts fueled by thanatos. Energy buildup results in tension.  Ego Referee between demands of id and the superego. Obeys the reality principle, represents reason and good sense.  Superego Morality and rules of parents and society. Consists of moral standards and conscience. Judges the activities of the id.

10. Defense Mechanisms Used by ego to reduce anxiety when id’s wishes conflict with society. They are unconscious and deny or distort reality.

11. Defense Mechanisms Repression: Blocking a threatening idea, memory, or emotion from consciousness. Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings and impulses to someone else. Displacement: Directing one’s emotions, especially anger, toward things, animals, or other people that are not the real object of one’s feelings. Sublimation: Displacement of emotions to serve a higher cultural or socially purpose. Reaction formation: Transforming anxiety-producing thoughts or feelings into their opposites, like promoting rally against prostitution, but unconsciously wanting to use their services. Regression: Returning to an early behaviors in defense against anxiety or frustration. Denial: Refusing to admit that something unpleasant is happening.

12. The development of personality Occurs in psychosexual stages. Child may remain fixated if too much anxiety or conflict is present. Fixation occurs when stages aren’t resolved successfully.

13. Psychosexual Development  Oral stage: Focus on the mouth Fixation may result in constantly seeking oral gratification  Anal stage: Issue is control Fixation at this stage become excessively tidy (anal- retentive) or excessively messy (anal-expulsive).  Phallic stage: Sexual sensation in penis or clitoris Oedipus or Electra complex emerges Identification with the same-sex parent By the end of this stage, personality is formed  Latency stage Sexual feelings subside  Genital stage Beginning of mature adult sexuality

14. Carl Jung Collective unconscious contains universal memories. Archetypes are themes and symbolic images that appear repeatedly in myths:  Two major archetypes are those of maleness and femaleness.  Masculine and feminine psychological qualities appear in both sexes: Anima = feminine archetype in men Animus = masculine archetype in women Perceived humans as more positively motivated than did Freud. Identified introversion-extraversion as a central personality orientation.

15. Object-relations School Emphasizes need for relationships  Object A representation or complex cognitive schema about the mother that the child constructs unconsciously  Object-relations Reflect numerous representations of self and others and the psychodynamic interplay among them.  Central tension is balance between independence and connection to other.  Children of both sexes identify with mother; males must separate.  Males’ identity is less secure than females.

16. Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories Problems with psychodynamic theories:  Can’t confirm or disprove ideas.  Universal principles drawn from the experiences of selected atypical patients.  Based on the retrospective memories of patients--creates illusion of causality. Some researchers are trying to study psychodynamic concepts empirically

17. THE MODERN STUDY OF PERSONALITY Projective Test  Based on the assumption that the test taker will transfer (“project”) unconscious conflicts and motives onto an ambiguous stimulus. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT) Objective Personality Inventories/Scales  Standardized questionnaires with written responses.  Include scales on which individuals rate themselves. Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) MBTI

18. Thematic Apperception Test Person is asked to tell a story about the “hero” in the picture. Based on Murray’s personality theory:  People are distinguished by the needs that motivate their behavior.

19. Rorschach Inkblot Test Ambiguous stimuli presented. Person is asked to report what he/she sees. No clear image, so the things you see must be “projected” from inside yourself.

20. Objective Personality Scales Answer a series of questions about self  “I am easily embarrassed”True or False  “I like to go to parties”True or False No right or wrong answers. From responses a picture is developed (personality profile).

21. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Most widely used personality instrument  Now the MMPI-2 RF Used in clinical & employment settings. Measures aspects of personality that, if extreme, suggest a problem  E.g., extreme suspiciousness Long test–567 questions!

22. MMPI Sample Items I usually feel that life is worthwhile and interesting. (F) Depression Evil people are trying to influence my mind. (T) Paranoia I seem to hear things that other people can’t hear. (T) Schizophrenia

23. MMPI Clinical Scales 1HsHypochondriasisConcern with bodily symptoms 2DDepressionDepressive Symptoms 3HyHysteriaAwareness of problems and vulnerabilities 4PdPsychopathic DeviateConflict, struggle, anger, respect for society's rules 5MFMasculinity/FemininityStereotypical masculine or feminine interests/behaviors 6PaParanoiaLevel of trust, suspiciousness, sensitivity 7PtPsychastheniaWorry, Anxiety, tension, doubts, obsessiveness 8ScSchizophreniaOdd thinking and social alienation 9MaHypomaniaLevel of excitability 0SiSocial IntroversionPeople orientation

24. Validity Scales ?1"Cannot Say”Questions not answered L1LieClient "faking good“ F1InfrequencyClient "faking bad" K1DefensivenessDenial/Evasiveness Fb2Back FClient "faking bad" VRIN2Variable Response Inconsistency TRIN2True Response Inconsistency F-K2F minus KHonesty of test responses S2Superlative Appearing excessively good Fp2Psychiatric InfrequencyFrequency of presentation in clinical setting Fs2 RFInfrequent SomaticOverreporting of somatic symptoms Response

25. Content Scales (Some Examples) EsEgo Strength Scale OHOver-Controlled Hostility Scale MACMacAndrews Alcoholism Scale MAC-RMacAndrews Alcoholism Scale Revised DoDominance Scale APSAddictions Potential Scale AASAddictions Acknowledgement Scale SODSocial Discomfort Scale AAnxiety Scale RRepression Scale TPAType A Scale MDSMarital Distress Scale

26. MMPI Interpretation Code types and interaction of clinical scales can be quite complex and require specialized training to properly interpret. The MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF should only be scored and interpreted by individuals with graduate level training in either clinical, experimental or I/O psychology, and who have received specialized training in MMPI interpretation. Individuals who are not trained in psychological assessment and scoring should not attempt to score or interpret the MMPI as accurate scoring and interpretation requires knowledge of the test itself, standardized testing theory, the various subscales in combination (test profile) and correspondence of results to diagnosis.

27. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Measure psychological preferences on how people perceive the world and make decisions. Presences extrapolated from Carl Jung Theory. Originated by Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers.

28. MBTI Dichotomies Extraversion (E) v. Introversion (I)  Attitude Sensing (S) v. iNtuition (N)  Information Gathering Thinking (T) v. Feeling (F)  Decision Making Judging (J) v. Perceiving (P)  Life Style

29. Allport’s Trait Theory Trait  Characteristic assumed to describe a person across many situations. Individual traits make people unique  Central traits Characteristic ways of behaving  Secondary traits The more changeable aspects of personality

30. The “Big Five” Traits Supported by research as fundamental traits:  Extroversion versus Introversion  Neuroticism versus Emotional Stability  Agreeableness versus Antagonism  Conscientiousness versus Impulsiveness  Openness to Experience versus Resistence to New Experience

31. GENETIC INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY Members of other species show trait-like characteristics. Temperament  Characteristic physiological dispositions that appear in infancy and have some genetic basis.  Temperament is relatively stable.

32. Kagan’s Theory Reactive & Nonreactive Temperament Detectable in infancy & tend to remain stable throughout childhood. Children w/ reactive temperaments tend to be:  Shy and timid  React negatively to novel situations  Show increased sympathetic nervous system activity during mildly stressful tasks Children w/ nonreactive temperaments tend to be:  Outgoing  Curious

33. Evaluating Genetic Theories Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected by shared environment. Studies may underestimate the impact of environment. Even traits that are highly heritable are not fixed.

34. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY Situations and social learning Parental influence Power of peers

35. Situations and Social Learning People don’t have “traits”--instead, they show patterns of behavior. Reason for inconsistencies in behavior is that different behaviors are rewarded, punished, or ignored, depending on the situation.

36. Situations and Social Learning Perceptions of control  Much of human behavior is self-regulated, shaped by our thoughts, emotions, and goal. Reciprocal determinism  The interaction between aspects of the individual and aspects of the situation that shape personality. Nonshared Environment  The unique aspects of a person’s environment and experience that are not shared by family members.

37. Parental Influence Belief that personality is determined by how parents treat their children is challenged by three lines of empirical evidence:  The shared environment of the home has little, if any, influence on personality.  Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time and that they use with all of their children.  Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their children, there may be little relation between what they do and how the children turn out.

38. The Power of Peers Peer environment consists of different peer groups, organized by interests, ethnicity, and/or popularity. Children and adolescents who are temperamentally fearful and shy are more likely to be bullied. Peers can have a stronger influence on academic achievement than parents.

39. CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY Two kinds of cultures  Individualist individual needs take precedence over group needs  Collectivist group harmony takes precedence over individual wishes Cultures’ norms and values vary  Conversational distance  Punctuality In monochronic cultures, people do one thing at a time; value promptness (e.g., northern Europe, Canada, United States In polychronic cultures, people do several things at a time; promptness not valued (e.g., southern Europe, Middle East, South America, Africa)

40. Evaluating Cultural Approaches Cultural psychologists describe cultural influences on personality, avoiding stereotyping. Regional variations occur in every society. Many cultures share many human concerns (e.g., need for love, attachment, family, work, religion).

41. Humanist Approaches Developed as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism.  Abraham Maslow’s approach  Carl Rogers’s approach  Rollo May approach  Narrative approaches

42. Abraham Maslow’s Approach  Emphasized good side of human nature, peak experiences.  Emphasized movement toward state of self- actualization.

43. Malow's Hierarchy Pyramid Self-Actualization Physiological Safety Belongingness Esteem

44. Carl Rogers’s approach Interested in the fully functioning person Requires congruence between self-image and true feelings. Fully functioning--means a person is trusting, warm, and open to new experiences. Becoming fully functional requires unconditional positive regard. Conditional love results in incongruence and unhappiness.

45. Rollo May Approach Brought aspects of existentialism to American psychology. Emphasized the burdensome aspects of free will. The burden of responsibility can lead to anxiety and despair.

46. Narrative Approaches “What’s your story?” Holds more truth than may appear at first glance.

47. Evaluating Humanist Approaches Many assumptions cannot be tested. Concepts are difficult to define operationally.