2.  Total Area: 9,984,670 sq km (6,204,186 sq mi)  Somewhat larger than the U.S.  Borders US 8,893 km (5,525 mi)  Climate: temperate in south; sub-arctic and arctic in north  Terrain: mostly plains with mountains in west and lowlands in southeast

3.  Size: somewhat larger than the US  Population: 33,487,208 (July 2009 est.);  British Isles origin 28%,  French origin 23%,  other European 15%,  Amerindian 2%,  other, mostly Asian, African, Arab 6%,  mixed background 26%  Growth Rate: 0.817% (2009 est.)  Literacy Rate: 99%  Men-99%  Women- 99%  Life Expectancy:  Men-79  Women- 84

4.  Religion:  Roman Catholic 42.6%,  Protestant 23.3%,  other Christian 4.4%,  Muslim 1.9%,  other and unspecified 11.8%,  none 16%  GDP: $39,300  Government Form: a parliamentary democracy, a federation  Unemployment rate: 5.6%

5.  1000: Vikings Explore  1497: John Cabot claimed Cape Breton Island for Henry VII of England; Newfoundland  1535: Cartier sails up the St. Lawrence River and reaches the St. Lawrence Iroquoian villages of Stadacona and Hochelaga (now Quebec City and Montreal).  1670: Formation of the Hudson’s Bay Company  1759: Battle of the Plains of Abraham  1867: British North America Act 1914 Entered WWI

6. 1919 Joined League of nations 1931 Statue of Westminster 1939 Entered WWII 1969 Saturday mail delivery in Canada was eliminated by Canada Post 1982 Canada Act of 1982 1997 Clarity Act 2003 Reform and PC Parties merge to form Conservative Party of Canada

7. July 1,1960 - Status Indians are given the right to vote August 10, 1960 - The Canadian Bill of Rights is given royal assent April 1964 - Canadians are issued Social Insurance cards for the first time June 15 1964 - The Great Flag Debate begins in the House of Commons December 16 1964 - Bill creating the new Flag of Canada passed in the House of Commons after much controversy. 1969 Saturday mail delivery in Canada was eliminated by Canada Post July 3, 1974 - Canada first demands that its territorial waters be extended to 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) 1982 Canada Act of 1982 1989 - Heather Erxleben becomes Canada's first official female combat soldier

8. January 7, 1995 - The opening of Parliament is televised for the first time May 11, 1999: Chevron announces a major natural gas find in the Northwest Territories July 8, 2003: British Columbia follows Ontario's lead and permits same-sex marriage May 30, 2008: Maxime Bernier resigned from his federal cabinet post as Minister of Foreign Affairs June 14, 2008: Howard Hampton announces his resignation from the leadership of the Ontario New Democratic Party, resulting in the commencement of the Ontario New Democratic Party leadership election, 2009. July 1, 2008: Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada) General Rick Hillier's term is set to end; Hillier is replaced by Walter Natynczyk

9. Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Northwest Territories Nova Scotia

10. Nunavut Ontario Prince Edward Island Québec Saskatchewan Yukon

11. Provinces and territories Cont. All provinces have unicameral, elected legislatures headed by a Premier selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a Lieutenant-Governor representing the Queen, analogous to the Governor General of Canada. The Lieutenant- Governor is appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years.

12. Crisis High turnover in government Global recession hit Canada hard Canadians supported Obama, but few are interested in an equivalent change

13. Thinking About Canada U.S./ Canada perplexing relationship U.S. media prevalence in Canada Frequent Canadian travel to U.S. Geography – Third largest country in terms of land area – Much of Canada is above the Arctic Circle

14. Thinking About Canada Diversity – English and French Colony – ¼ speak French (in Quebec) – Increasing immigration from the Caribbean, China, and South Asia – “Visible minorities” make up 6% of the population – Diversity: Linguistic, racial, ethnic, and regional – Never tried to enforce a common identity – Language issue Bill 101

15. Key Questions Why does Canada have more problems with national unity than most established democracies? In what ways are regionalism and nationalism important in Canadian politics? What explains the high level of voter volatility in Canada that led to massive swings in popular support for the major parties and the birth of several new ones since the 1960’s? Why are Canadians apparently alienated from their political institutions? But, at the same time, why are they reluctant to engage in major constitutional change?

16. Colonialism Native aboriginals nearly exterminated Integration of remaining indigenous population occurred after decades of brutality Tension between British/ French Colonization of North America – French and Indian Wars – Loss of French territory related to European Politics – Quebec Act – Upper/lower Canada

17. Responsible Government Durham Report Canada East and Canada West equal division of seats 1860’s Legislature deadlocked

18. Confederation and British North America Act 1864 Charlottetown Conference British North America Act created Canadian Confederation Rouges not represented at Conference Factions: – Conservatives – Bleus (Canada East) allied with Canada West Tories – Reform Party – Federalism

19. Provisions of the British North America Act Federal system in BNA act was far more centralized then Canada is today – Economic control in hands of federal government – Features based on British colonial practice Disallowance – The BNA Act contained important guarantees for the English minority in Quebec

20. Provisions of the British North America Act Canada’s system of government “similar in principle” to that of the United Kingdom. Senate upper house “check” on popularly elected House of Commons Representation unequal among provinces Confederation created peacefully and encouraged by British government Confederation did not mark independence from British crown

21. The Evolution of the British Federal System Decentralizing pressures Ontario/ Quebec: Industrial Prairie Provinces: Agriculture Maritime Provinces: Resource dependent Federal government policies alienated the country Decisions of Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and rise of provincial rights movements led to decentralization

22. Deadlock and Its Solution The first solution: amending the BNA Act to transfer power from the provincial to the federal government The second solution: use of the federal spending power in areas of provincial jurisdiction

23. Decentralization in the Modern Era Quiet Revolution 1960 Federal questions magnified with leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in 1968 Economic changes reinforced decentralization

24. The Constitutional Problem 1980’s cut spending The BNA Act did not contain a provision for amending it by Canadians Quebec government of the 1960’s and 1970’s began to demand “equality or independence” Independence a possibility under Rene Levesque referendum on sovereignty association Adoption of the Charter of Rights

25. The Constitutional Problem Opposition of Quebec to 1982 Constitutional patriation Meech Lake Accord of 1987 – Opposition from Western Canada and aboriginal population – Distinct society clause Charlottetown Accord of 1992 defeated in a referendum

26. Political Culture Canadians to the left of Americans, but less divisive politics Social class not a central political issue US and Canada both had waves of immigration, nonwhite migrants over the last few decades Both US and Canada have liberal and tolerant cultures Canada legalization of gay marriage

27. Political Culture “Post-materialist” perspective Hartz’s “fragment theory” – English-speaking Canada has had a strong Tory streak – Deference to authority – Opposition to individualism – Skepticism about popular democracy – Collectivist solutions rooted in communitarian values

28. Political Culture Problems with the fragment theory: – Views Quebec as a conservative fragment of French political culture from before the Revolution of 1789 – Does not allow for significant change in political culture – Disagreements over regionalism, nationalism, and language have played the most important role in shaping Canadian politics

29. Political Participation Canadian political parties have more in Common with Europe than the United States WWII- the 1993 election two and a half party system- Liberals and Progressive Conservatives, small competition from NDP Two new parties Reform and Bloc Quebecois Merge of Reform and PC to form the Conservative Party Brokerage Politics? – Catch-all parties – Mass parties

30. Political Participation Reform/ Bloc Quebecois not brokerage or catch- all parties Criticisms of catch-all parties: – Deliberately distract from class and economic issues – Parties undermine democratic accountability – Catch-all or brokerage parties are elite driven Advantages of Catch-all parties: – Bridge differences in society

31. Political Participation The Evolution of the Canadian Party System – Reform parties in Ontario and Quebec could not work together – Ontario Conservatives and the Bleus found it easier to cooperate with each other – “National Policy” sparked opposition Rebellion led by Louis Riel Opposition of Westerners 1896 election Liberals built an electoral coalition of Westerners and Quebecers

32. Political Participation Other issues dividing the Conservatives and Liberals: – Free trade – Relationship with Britain – Draft After WWI: First third party, Progressives

33. Political Participation Interwar period dominated by the Liberal Party After WWII, Liberals and Tories embraced the Keynesian consensus Canadian welfare state Rise of prairie populist politician John Diefenbaker 1990’s last major change in the Canadian party system- Reform (renamed Alliance), merged with the PC and created today’s Conservative Party in 2003

34. The Role of Smaller Parties Progress Party 1921 election CCF 1930’s NDP 1961 The Bloc Quebecois 1990 The Reform Party

35. The Party System Today Four party system – Two major parties: Liberal and Conservatives – NDP and Bloc Quebecois – Reform/Alliance As of December 2009 The Conservatives under Harper and his team still in power Conservative party tries to combine two important strands in Canada’s political history: – Deference to authority and resistance to dramatic change – Right wing populism

36. Electoral System First past the post electoral system A party can and almost always does win an election with less than a majority of the votes Criticisms of first past the post: – Undemocratic because allows parties to form a government without a majority vote – Exaggerates regional differences – Exaggerates the power of large parties and minimizes smaller ones

37. Electoral System An advantage of first past the post is that it creates a stable government Governments in Canada are almost always controlled by a single party rather than coalitions Alternative to first past the post is proportional representation

38. Voter Behavior Voter volatility is directly related to the brokerage nature of the Liberal and Conservative parties Factors in voting behavior: – Religion – Gender and race – Urban/rural split Class not a major factor Media plays a key role

39. Group and Movement Politics Canada has both highly organized groups with substantial resources and clear goals and less- organized movements and less resources – Canadian Council of Chief Executives – Groups that start off as movements become institutionalized – Trade union movement does not have close relationship with federal government and is divided – Competing groups claiming to promote interests of workers and businesses

40. The Canadian State Queen (or Crown) is less important in day-to- day life than the UK – Symbol – Governor-general – Canada is a sovereign state Federal system

41. The Government Governor-general advised by Privy Council The cabinet is led by the prime minister, who also serve as MP’s Ministerial responsibility/collective responsibility Firm party discipline – MP’s can be expelled from caucus and deprived of party support – Opposition caucuses have shadow critics – High turnover rate – Roles of House of Commons compromised by party discipline; a reason for rising level of voter dissatisfaction – Reform party critique

42. The Government The Senate has general law-making authority Senators are appointed do not usually exercise their right to reject legislation Rarely does more than delay the passage of legislation Cannot initiate some bills

43. The Courts Power of judicial review Supreme Court of Canada Criticisms that courts are too powerful Constitutional entrenchment of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982 – Human rights – Individual and collective rights – Equal rights “Notwithstanding clause” Reference cases

44. Public Policy Health care – Single-payer system Keynesian state – Liberal governments of the 1940’s and 1950’s embraced this policy – Supported idea of welfare state – Joined GATT – 1980’s shift away from Keynes model Election of Mulroney government in 1984 – Free trade between U.S./ Canada began in 1987, opposition immediately – Liberals did not restore Mulroney cuts (Canada Health and Social Transfer) – Today, Canadian economy is in good shape despite recession U.S./Canadian currency roughly equal in value

45. Public Policy Foreign Policy – Military converted to one whose primary mission is peacekeeping CANADEM Overwhelming majority of Canadians opposed invasion in Iraq – Taking a leading role in international development efforts, largest county to commit to spending 0.7% of GDP on development assistance – World’s longest undefended border with U.S.

46. Feedback Political debates over the nature and role of the American media in Canada Canadian version of the BBC is in jeopardy due to being underfunded CTV Hundreds of newspapers, many local Ownership of newspapers highly centralized until recently

47. Quebec Given the province's heritage and the preponderance of French (unique among the Canadian provinces), there is an ongoing debate in Canada regarding the status of Quebec and its people (wholly or partially). Prior attempts to amend the Canadian constitution to acknowledge Quebec as a 'distinct society' – referring to the province's uniqueness within Canada regarding law, language, and culture – have been unsuccessful; however, the federal government under prime minister Jean Chrétien would later endorse recognition of Quebec as a distinct society. The Quebec sovereignty movement (French: Movement souverainiste du Québec) is a political movement aimed at either attaining independent statehood (sovereignty) or some degree of greater political autonomy

48. Meech Lake Accord (1987)

49. Canadian Government “Her Majesty's Government in Canada” A constitutional monarchy that is also a parliamentary democracy and a federation Queen Head of State Queen Elizabeth II; sovereign and head of state; gives “repository” to executive power, judicial and legislative

50. Executive Branch Prime Minister: Stephen Harper (22) Prime Minister Head of Government Appointed by the governor general

51. Executive Cont. Queen appoints Governor General; selected on advice of prime minister Governor General: Michaëlle Jean Governor General has no term limit; representative of the queen Governor General elects his “Ministers of the Crown”

52. Government departments and structure Significant departments include Finance, Revenue, Human Resources and Skills Development, National Defense, Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, and Foreign Affairs/International Trade.

53. Prime Minister Office is not outlined in any document in the Constitution Executive authority is formally vested in Canadian Sovereignty British prime minister ship, although fully developed by 1867, was not formally integrated into the British constitution until 1905 Prime Minister is the head of the Political party that holds the most seats in the house of Commons

54. Governor General Head of State of Canada Michaëlle Jean is the holds the current office The monarch appoints the Governor General on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister, after which the Governor General maintains direct contact with the monarch. There is no specific term.

55. Bill of Rights The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (also known as The Charter of Rights and Freedoms or simply the Charter) is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada the first part of the Constitution Act, 1982. guarantees certain political and civil rights of people in Canada from the policies and actions of all levels of government

56. Bill of Rights cont. The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960 One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to greatly expand the scope of judicial review, because the Charter is more explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges in enforcing them than was the Bill of Rights.

57. Judiciary Has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution Nine members are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates

58. Judiciary Cont. The Court system of Canada is made up of many courts differing in levels of legal superiority and separated by jurisdiction. Some of the courts are federal in nature while others are provincial or territorial. Almost all cases, whether criminal or civil, start in provincial courts and may be eventually appealed to higher level courts. The quite small system of federal courts only hear cases concerned with matters which are under exclusive federal control, such as immigration.

59. Foreign relations and military Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co- operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partners. Canada has nevertheless maintained an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to participate in the Iraq War. Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth in English Canada led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[40][41] Canada joined the United Nations in 1945 and became a founding member of NATO in 1949.

60. Foreign relations and military Cont. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against aerial attacks from the Soviet Union. Canada has played a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.

61. Foreign relations and military Cont (2) One of the most unique aspects of Canadian foreign policy is the high level of freedom the provinces have to operate internationally. Provinces have always participated in some foreign relations, and appointed agents-general in the United Kingdom and France for many years, but they cannot legislate treaties. The French-speaking provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick are members of la Francophone, and Ontario has announced it wishes to join. Quebec, ruled primarily by separatist governments since 1976, has pursued its own foreign relations, especially with France. Alberta opened an office in Washington D.C. in March 2005 to lobby the American government

62. Economy Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per- capita income, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Eight. Canada is a mixed market,[58] ranking lower than the U.S. but higher than most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom. Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. As of October 2007, Canada's national unemployment rate of 5.9% is its lowest in 33 years.

63. Economy Cont. Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[2] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas and large oil and gas resources are centred in Alberta. The vast Athabasca Tar Sands give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil behind Saudi Arabia.[62] In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba, hydroelectric power is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy. Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Canada-United States Automotive Agreement in 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. The Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while North American Free Trade Agreement expanded the free trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s. Canadian nationalists continue to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations are omnipresent.

64. Economy Cont. (2) Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.Since the mid-1990s, Canada's federal government has posted annual budgetary surpluses and has steadily paid down the national debt.

65. Federal-provincial relations The provinces are considered co-sovereign; sovereignty of the provinces is passed on, not by the Governor General or the Canadian parliament, but through the Crown itself. This means that the Crown is "divided" into eleven legal jurisdictions; into eleven "Crowns" - one federal and ten provincial. Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly Dominion-provincial) relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provinces desire more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized Central Canada is concerned with its manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent than the rest of the country.Central Canada

66. Federal-provincial relations Cont. the federal government makes payments to less wealthy Canadian provinces to equalize the provinces' "fiscal capacity" — their ability to generate tax revenues. This is known as transfer (equalization) payments The richer provinces often favor freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favor, based on the claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government services, and the poorer provinces often favor an increase on the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs.

67. Canadian Parliament Senate (105) Upper house “Red Chamber” Appointed by the governor with advice by P.M. Prime ministers normally choose members of their own parties to be senators 30 years of age (min) 1/5 th the cost of the House of Commons Average age 65 Many Senators have more than one job Each district of Canada receive 24 senators

68. Canadian Parliament cont. House of Commons (308) Lower house Elected by popular vote (single member, “first past the post”) Serve 5 year terms Country divided into electoral districts with each getting a seat Most bills originate in HC

70.  Bloc Québécois- formed in 1991, social democrats, leader= Lucien Bouchard  Conservative Party- founded in 2003, conservative, leader= Stephen Harper  Liberal Party of Canada- found in 1867, liberal, leader= Michael Ignatuff  New Democratic Party- social democrats, leader= Jack Layton  Green Party of Canada- lead by Elizabeth May  Communist Party of Canada- leader= Sandra Smith  Most Parties are catch-all parties

71.  Many similarities with the United States  Very tolerant and progressive on social issues - Gay marriage is legal  Slow to change issues, work through compromise/ negotiation  No issues about social class  Favor capitalist economy, and a government that provides basic freedoms  People believe that state should not interfere in determining how people run their lives  Voter turnout similar to US

72.  Issues- status of Quebec(should it be allowed to leave country) - relationship between provinces and national government  Post-materialistic  Louis Hartz and the Fragment Theory -cultures of settler societies of North America reflect only cultural fragments of the societies from which immigrants came  Disagreements of regionalism, nationalism, and language play the most important role in Canadian politics

73.  The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (also known as The Charter of Rights and Freedoms or simply the Charter) is a bill of rights entrenched in the Constitution of Canada  the first part of the Constitution Act, 1982.  guarantees certain political and civil rights of people in Canada from the policies and actions of all levels of government  The Charter was preceded by the Canadian Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1960  One of the most notable effects of the adoption of the Charter was to greatly expand the scope of judicial review, because the Charter is more explicit with respect to the guarantee of rights and the role of judges in enforcing them than was the Bill of Rights.

74.  chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)  represented by Governor General Michaelle JEAN (since 27 September 2005)  head of government: Prime Minister Stephen HARPER (since 6 February 2006)

75.  Presides over the swearing-in of the prime minister, the Chief Justice of Canada and cabinet ministers.  Ensure that Canada always has a prime minister and a government in place  In the case of the death of a prime minister, it is the governor general’s responsibility to ensure the continuity of government.  Summons Parliament  Royal Assent, which makes acts of Parliament into law.  Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Forces  Chancellor of the Order of Canada and the Order of Military Merit. Currently: Her Excellency the Right Honorable Michaëlle Jean

76. Michaëlle Jean (2005 to present) Adrienne Clarkson (1999 to 2005) Roméo Leblanc (1995 to 1999) Ramon Hnatyshyn (1990 to 1995) Jeanne Sauvé (1984 to 1990) Edward Schreyer (1979 to 1984) Jules Léger (1974 to 1979) Roland Michener (1967 to 1974) Georges Vanier (1959 to 1967) Vincent Massey (1952 to 1959) The Viscount Alexander of Tunis (1946 to 1952) Earl of Athlone (1940 to 1946)

77. Lord Tweedsmuir (1935 to 1940) Earl of Bessborough (1931 to 1935) Viscount Willingdon (1926 to 1931) Lord Byng (1921 to 1926) Duke of Devonshire (1916 to 1921) Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (1911 to 1916) Earl Grey (1904 to 1911) Earl of Minto (1898 to 1904) Earl of Aberdeen (1893 to 1898) Lord Stanley (1888 to 1893) Marquess of Lansdowne (1883 to 1888) Marquess of Lorne (1878 to 1883) Earl of Dufferin (1872 to 1878) Lord Lisgar (1869 to 1872) Viscount Monck (1867 to 1868)

78. Currently Stephan Harper leader of the Conservative Party of Canada.  The primary Minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government of Canada  Initially modeled after the job as it existed in Britain at time of Confederation in 1867  Not elected directly but is by constitutional convention the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in the House of Common  The Cabinet must have "unanimous" consent on all decisions they make, but in practice whether or not unanimity has been achieved is decided by the prime minister  Controls the appointments: all members of the Cabinet, vacant seats on the Supreme Court of Canada; vacant seats in the Senate

79.  William McKenzie King- Liberal(‘38-’48)  Lois St. Laurent- Liberal-(‘48-’57)  John Diefenbaker- P. Conservative-(‘57-’63)  Lester Pearson- Liberal-(63-68)  Pierre Trudeau- Liberal-(68-79; 80-84)  Joe Clark- Progressive Conservative-(79)  Brian Mulroney- Progressive Conservative-(84-93)  Kim Campbell-Progressive Conservative-(93)  Jean Chretien-Liberal-(93-03)  Paul Martin- Liberal-(03-06)  Stephan Harper- Conservative-(06-Present)

80.  Bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate and the House  Common Amendments can only be passed by the Canadian House of Commons, the Senate, and a two-thirds majority of the provincial legislatures representing at least 50% of the national population

81.  Upper house  “Red Chamber”  Appointed by the governor with advice by P.M.  Prime ministers normally choose members of their own parties to be senators  30 years of age (min)  1/5 th the cost of the House of Commons  Average age 65  Many Senators have more than one job  Each district of Canada receives 24 senators

82.  Lower house  Elected by popular vote (single member, “first past the post”)  Serve 5 year terms  Country divided into electoral districts with each getting a seat  Most bills originate in HoC

83.  Has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution aka Judicial Review  Nine members are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice.  All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies  Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates

84.  The Court system of Canada is made up of many courts differing in levels of legal superiority and separated by jurisdiction. Some of the courts are federal in nature while others are provincial or territorial.  Almost all cases, whether criminal or civil, start in provincial courts and may be eventually appealed to higher level courts. The quite small system of federal courts only hear cases concerned with matters which are under exclusive federal control, such as immigration.

85.  Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partners. Canada has nevertheless maintained an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to participate in the Iraq War.  Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth in English Canada led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[40][41] Canada joined the United Nations in 1945 and became a founding member of NATO in 1949.

86.  During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.  Canada has played a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts.  In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.

87.  Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Eight. Canada is a mixed market,[58] ranking lower than the U.S. but higher than most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom.  Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. As of October 2007, Canada's national unemployment rate of 5.9% is its lowest in 33 years.

88.  Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[2] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas and large oil and gas resources are centred in Alberta. The vast Athabasca Tar Sands give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil behind Saudi Arabia.[62] In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba, hydroelectric power is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy.  Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Canada-United States Automotive Agreement in 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. The Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while North American Free Trade Agreement expanded the free trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s. Canadian nationalists continue to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations are omnipresent.

89.  Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.Since the mid-1990s, Canada's federal government has posted annual budgetary surpluses and has steadily paid down the national debt.

90. describe basic characteristics of the diversity of the people in Canada identify political and economic factors that contributed to the development of Canadian federalism identify differences between “two founding nations” federalism and “equal provinces” federalism describe five major elements of Canadian political culture compare “brokerage” parties in Canada with catch-all parties in the USA and Western Europe describe the effects of “brokerage” parties on voter behavior in Canada explain how the “first past the post” electoral system affects Canadian politics and political parties explain how the organization of interest groups in Canada reflects the country’s primary political cleavages distinguish between collective and individual responsibility and explain the role of each in the Canadian regime describe the tension between party discipline in Parliament and the representation of voters in MP’s ridings