1. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Encoding and Retrieval Processes in Long-Term Memory Chapter 6

2. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Fundamental Issues and Distinctions Many distinguish between short-term memory and long-term memory Serial position effect Items at the beginning and end of a list are remembered particularly well Evidence for the distinction?

3. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Fundamental Issues and Distinctions Long-Term memory (LTM) systems Episodic Memory memory for personally experienced events Semantic Memory knowledge or information about the world; not tied to context Procedural Memory Ability to perform well-practiced actions and skills

4. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Fundamental Issues and Distinctions Basic processes of LTM Encoding Processes involved in information acquisition Storage Retention of a memory representation Retrieval Accessing information in LTM after encoding and storage Memory can be tested directly (explicit memory tests) or indirectly (implicit memory tests)

5. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Attention and Repetition Spacing effect Massed repetition is not as effective as distributed repetition Superiority of distributed repetition due to: Deficient processing in massed repetition Encoding variability in distributed repetition

6. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information with no embellishment Elaborative rehearsal: linking information with previously stored information Effective for incidental and intentional learning

7. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Levels of processing Processing of words proceeds from a superficial sensory analysis to a meaningful semantic analysis Deeper processing = better retention Problems:  “Deep” processing is vaguely/circularly defined  Doesn’t say much about retrieval

8. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Transfer-Appropriate Processing Places emphasis on encoding-retrieval interaction Most effective encoding technique depends on how retrieval is to be tested Encoding processes should match processes to be engaged at retrieval.

9. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Encoding also aided by: Distinctiveness: Processes that distinguish information in LTM Organization: Processes that add structure to incoming information Material-Appropriate Processing Best strategy is whichever provides a complement to the information offered by the material.

10. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding Processes Mnemonic techniques Devices employed to improve memory Method of Loci: link to-be-remembered material to known locations Retrieve with “mental walk” Effectiveness of visual processing Self-Reference: relating information to self improves memory.

11. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Remembering Actions Enactment effect Memory is better for actions than for corresponding verbal statements Prospective Memory Remembering to perform future actions Involves “self-initiated retrieval”

12. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Retrieval Processes A good deal of forgetting is due to retrieval failure Accessibility vs. Availability Information is often present (available), but not retrievable (accessible) without the right cue

13. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Retrieval Processes Encoding Specificity Principle Memory benefits to the extent that retrieval features (i.e., cues) overlaps with features present during encoding Encoding features are the best retrieval cues

14. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Retrieval Processes Encoding Specificity Thomson and Tulving (1970) Gave subjects weakly related word pairs Assessed two types of retrieval cue Strongly related word Weakly related (but presented at encoding) word Weakly related word was much more effective as a retrieval cue

15. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Retrieval Processes Encoding Specificity An extension of encoding specificity Context Dependency: Given a particular encoding context, memory is better when retrieval reinstates that context. Has been demonstrated with both external and internal context Encoding Context Retrieval Context AB A B

16. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Retrieval Processes A Testing Effect Retrieval aids in retrieval -- the testing effect Roediger & Karpicke (2006) compared two conditions Subjects studied a passage repeatedly or studied it once and tested themselves repeatedly Repeated testing decreased forgetting rate dramatically

17. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Encoding and Retrieval: Hemispheric Asymmetry Neuro-imaging studies indicate hemispheric specialization in memory functioning Left hemisphere particularly active during retrieval of semantic memory info and encoding processes Right hemisphere particularly active during recall of specific episodes

18. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Memory and Consciousness Remember-Know paradigm Recognition task; subjects are asked about subjective experience during retrieval Remember: Conscious recollection Know: Automatic judgment; no recollection Remember and know judgments are dissociated by a number of variables

19. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Long-Term Memory Memory and Consciousness Not all expressions of memory involve conscious retrieval Explicit memory: Remembering via conscious recollection and effortful retrieval. Conscious recollection necessary Implicit memory: “Remembering” as reflected in changes in behaviors, attitudes, emotions Conscious recollection not necessary

20. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Implicit memory reflected in unconscious plagiarism Misattributing a thought or idea to oneself “Memory” without conscious recollection Implicit memory reflected in deja-vu. Mistaken feeling that you’ve been in some situation before Implicit remembering of a related situation?

21. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Implicit memory tests Word fragment completion: c _ n _ c i _ u _ n e _ _ Word stem completion: con ____________ Compare completion rates for words previously encountered to baseline completion rates Enhanced completion for previously encountered words = priming; a measure of implicit memoryt

22. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Dissociations are often observed between measures of explicit and implicit memory Amnesia: memory deficits brought on by severe brain injury Amnesia dissociates explicit and implicit memory Explicit tests: amnesia-related deficit Implicit tests: no amnesia-related deficit

23. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Dissociations can be observed in non-amnesics Jacoby (1983): had subjects encode words by reading or generating a response to a clue Tested them explicitly (recognition) or implicitly (identification) Generating led to better recognition performance; reading led to better identification performance

24. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Accounts of explicit-implicit associations Transfer-Appropriate Processing Memory depends on retrieval-encoding match Implicit tests: data-driven in nature; are aided by data-driven encoding Explicit tests: conceptually driven in nature, aided by conceptually-driven encoding.

25. c. 2008 Pearson Allyn & Bacon Memory and Consciousness Implicit Memory Accounts of explicit-implicit associations Performance on implicit and explicit memory tests depends on different memory systems Implicit tests reflect procedural memory system Explicit tests reflect declarative memory system