1. History Of Oceanography
Wood and Wind
Aquatic Science

2. Early History of Oceanography
The Indian Ocean was the first used for trade but the last to be explored
In China, a “magnetic loadstone” was found and adapted as a compass
The “Dark Ages” was the time when most knowledge of the sea that had been acquired was lost and exploration of the oceans was restrained
The Vikings of northern Europe sailed to and established colonies in Iceland and Greenland prior to 1000 A.D.
In the late 1400’s the people of southern Europe again explored the sea.

3. After the Dark Ages
Magellan’s voyage proved that the Earth was round (1519 – 1522)
Captain James Cook was the first explorer who had instruments to measure accurately latitude and longitude.
While ocean depth measurements were attempted, the depth and character of the bottom was generally unknown.

4. How did early explorers measure the depth of the ocean?
“Soundings” are taken by
lowering a line to the
bottom of the ocean.
A weight was added to
the line which then
dropped off when the bottom was reached.
Soundings help determine
the depth of the water and kept ships from running a ground.

5. Early Oceanographic Research in the United States
Oceanography started with Ben Franklin who published a map of the Gulf Stream.
He had been asked to determine “why” ships traveling from Europe to the Colonies took less time than ships going from the Colonies to Europe.
He discovered that ships traveling “with” the current had a faster travel time than ship sailing “against” the current

6. Matthew Fontaine Maury
Belonged to the United States Navy
Using data from the log books of ships he published a book called the “The Physical Geography of the Sea”
It was one of the first books on oceanography.
He also accumulated records of deep-sea soundings and published the first bathymetric map of the North Atlantic

7. US Exploring Expedition (1836)
Its objective was to collect all the information if could from both land and sea to help increase commercial prospects for the United States.
The problem with expedition included:
Ships were disabled at sea
Much of the scientific collection
had been lost or mishandled
Little public interest
Insufficient funds for publication

8. The Blake
Following the Civil War, the US Coast and Geodetic Survey now NOAA) charted the Blake to study the Gulf Stream and the US Continental Shelf
It conducted several dredging and sampling cruises along the East Coast in the 1870’s and 1880’s

9. Early Contributions by Other Nations
A young naturalist named Charles Darwin (England) set sail on the Beagle to study the diversity of life.
He studies a variety of organisms on the Galapagos Islands
His finding on evolution led other scientists to explore the ocean further

10. Forbes and Huxley (England) – Misconceptions on the Ocean
Edward Forbes suggested that the ocean was divided into two main zones. The upper zone contained all the life while the azoic zone did not
Thomas Huxley while collecting specimens from the ocean floor found a thin jelly-like layer on top of the mud samples
He called it protoplasm and thought it was the origin of life.

11. The Challenger Expedition (1872-1876)
This expedition was led by Sir Charles Wyville Thompson
The expedition circumnavigated the world
The Challenger made 492 deep soundings,133 dredgings
Collected data from 362 oceanographic stations
More than 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered

12. The Challenger Deep
A deep sounding was made at the Marianas Trench in the Pacific
The sounding depth was 4,475 fathoms or 35,850 feet.

13. Oceanographic Stations
Measured the depth of the ocean Geological
Obtain core samples from the bottom Geological
Sample plant and animal life Biological
Sample the fauna from bottom sediment Biological
Measures water temperature Chemical
Sample sea water Chemical
Measure ocean currents Physical
Make atmospheric and meteorological observations Physical

14. The Fram (Norwegian) The Fram under the direction
of Fridtjof Nansen from
1893 – 1880
Wooden ship constructed
so that she could be frozen
into the ice of the
Arctic Ocean.
The ships objective was to drift
across the North Pole
Confirmed that the Arctic was an ocean
A field station on the ice was used to collect geophysical information from the Arctic Ocean

15. Modern Oceanography
U.S.S. Stewart – was the first ship to make a continuous echo-sounding across the ocean basin

16. Meteor Expedition
1925 the Meteor Expedition routinely and continuously made sounding across the ocean.
The soundings were make electronically so they did not have to stop for each measurement.

17. New Technology beneath the surface of the seas
Trieste –bathyscape that dove the Mariana Trench (35,600 ft)
Nautilus- sailed under the North Pole
Thresher (1963) and Scorpion (1967)- both submarines and crew were lost at sea
Project Mohole – attempted to drill through the earth’s crust

18. Drilling Below the Ocean
The Deep Sea Drilling Project drilled over 850 holes in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans
The Glomer Challenger – drilling vessel used to collect core samples of the ocean floor
The Glomer Explorer – drilling vessel build by Howard Hughes and financed by the CIA to attempt to raise a sunken soviet submarine

19. The 1970’s were the International Decade of Ocean Exploration
Studied mixing and circulation processes of the ocean
Water samples were collected for study – called “water library”
Physical oceanographers studied the motion of the ocean
Chemical oceanographers documented ocean pollution

20. Submarine and Submersibles
Self propelled
Large crew
Crew lives on the sub for months at a time
Can study the ocean while covering large distance
Submersible
Transported by a ship
Crew of three
Crew uses the submersible short periods of time
Small and can remain in place for several hours
Can easily pick up objects from the ocean bottom