1. Cognition

2. Memory
Memory – An system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.

3. Information Processing Model
Information Processing Model – A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

4. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Encoding – On of the three basic tasks of memory, involving the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system.

5. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Storage – One of the three basic tasks of memory, involving the retention of encoded material over time.

6. Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
Retrieval – The third basic task of memory, involving the location and recovery of information from memory.

7. Eidetic Imagery
Eidetic Imagery – An especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare.
AKA – Photographic Memory

8. How do we form memories? 3 Stages Sensory Memory Working Memory
Long-term Memory

9. How do we form memories?
Sensory Memory – The first of three memory stages, preserving brief sensory impulses of stimuli

10. How do we form memories?
Working Memory – The second of three memory stages, and the most limited in capacity.
It preserves recently perceived events or experience for less than a minute without rehearsal.

11. Working Memory Chunks and Chunking
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks) – a process that frees up space in working memory.

12. Working Memory The Role of Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal – A working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory.
Maintenance rehearsal involves no active elaboration.

13. Working Memory The Role of Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal – A working memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM.

14. Working Memory
Acoustic Encoding – The conversion of information, especially semantic information, to sound patterns in working memory.

15. Working Memory Levels of Processing in Working Memory
Levels of Processing Theory – The explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory (more “deeply” processed) will be remembered better.

16. How do we form memories?
Long-term Memory – The third of three memory stages, with the largest capacity and longest duration.
Long term memory stores material organized according to meaning.

17. Long-term Memory Procedural Memory
A division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done.

18. Long-term Memory Declarative Memory
Declarative Memory – A division of LTM that stores explicit information; also known as fact memory.
Has two subdivisions:
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory

19. Long-term memory Declarative Memory
Episodic Memory – A subdivision of declarative memory that stores memory that stores memory for personal events, or “episodes.”

20. Long-term Memory Declarative Memory
Semantic Memory – A subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including the meanings of words and concepts.

21. Long-term Memory The Biological Basis of Long-term Memory
Engram – The physical changes in the brain associated with a memory.
AKA a memory trace.

22. Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia – The inability to form memories for new information.

23. Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia - As opposed to retrograde amnesia, which involves the inability to remember information previously stored in memory.

24. Consolidation
Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories over a period of time.

25. Flashbulb Memories
Flashbulb Memory – A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

26. Implicit and Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory – A memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness.
Explicit Memory – A memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled.

27. Retrieval Cues
Retrieval Cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior.

28. Retrieval Cues
Priming – A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory.

29. Retrieval Cues
Recall – A retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information.
Recognition – A retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented.

30. Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Encoding Specificity Principle – The doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific sues related to the context in which it was formed.
The more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered.

31. Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
Mood-Congruent Memory – A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one’s mood.

32. Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
TOT Phenomenon – The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory.
Often described as “on the tip of the tongue.”

33. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Transience – The impermanence of a long-term memory.
Based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time.

34. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Transience
Forgetting Curve – A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables.
The typical forgetting curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes on.

35. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us
Absent Mindedness – Forgetting caused by lapses in attention.

36. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Blocking – Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved.
Blocking is often caused by Interference.

37. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Proactive Interference – A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information.

38. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Retroactive Interference – A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material.

39. Why does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
Serial Position Effect – A form of inference related to the sequence in which information is presented.
Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last.

40. Memories in the Wrong Context
Misattribution – A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person.

41. Suggestibility: External Cues Distort or Create Memories
Suggestibility – The process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion.

42. Memory Distortion
Misinformation Effect – The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation.

43. Bias: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions Distort Memories
Expectancy Bias – In memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit into one’s expectations.

44. Bias
Self-Consistency Bias – The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are.

45. Persistence: When we Can’t Forget
Persistence – A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind.

46. Improving Memory
Mnemonics – Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory.

47. Improving Memory
Method of Loci – A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations.

48. Improving Memory
Natural Language Mediators – Words associated with new information to be remembered.

49. What are the Components of Thought?
Concepts – Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience.
Natural Concepts – Mental representations of objects and events drawn form our direct experience.
Artificial Concepts – Concepts defined by rules such as word definitions and mathematical formulas.
Concept Hierarchies – Levels of concepts, from most general to most specific, in which a more general level includes more specific concepts – as the concept of “animal” includes dog, giraffe, and butterfly.

50. Schemas & Scripts
Schema – A knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life.
Example – Might have schemas for “college” or “music.”
Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.
Example – Have a script for going to the library to check out a book, or going to the movie theatre to see a new movie.

51. Thought and the Brain When you think, your brain becomes stimulated.
Event-related potentials – Brain waves shown on the EEG in response to stimulation.

52. What abilities do good thinkers possess?
Problem Solving
Judgment
Decision Making

53. Problem Solving Good problem solvers can: Identify the problem
Select a strategy to find a solution

54. Selecting a Strategy
Algorithms – Problem solving step by step procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied.

55. Selecting a Strategy
Heuristics – Cognitive strategies or “rules of thumb” used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks.
Unlike algorithms, they do not guarantee a correct solution.

56. Problem Solving Obstacles
Mental Set – The tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem.

57. Problem Solving Obstacles
Functional Fixedness – The inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set.

58. Judgment and Decision Making
Common Causes of Poor Judgment
Confirmation Bias
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias

59. Judgment and Decision Making
Problems in Judgment:
Overconfidence – The tendency to be more confident than correct – to over-estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
Belief Perseverance – Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

60. Judgment and Problem Solving
Other factors influencing judgment:
Intuition – An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Framing – The way and issue is posed, how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

61. Creativity
A mental process that produces novel responses that contribute to the solutions of problems.
Aptitudes responsible for creativity???
Innate potentialities.

62. Language Acquisition
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – A biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because (according to chomsky) it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar.

63. Language Structure
Phonemes – In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme – In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
Grammar – A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Semantics – The set of rules by which we derive meaning form morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning.
Syntax – The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

64. Language Development
Babbling Stage – Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
One-word Stage – The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
Two-word Stage – Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
Telegraphic Speech – Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.