1. Foreign and Military Policy

2. Kinds of Foreign Policy
Majoritarian Politics- widespread benefits and costs (Pres has most power, public opinion supports but doesn’t guide)
Ex. Wars, military alliances, nuclear test ban,
Interest Group Politics-groups pitted against one another for benefits/costs (larger Congressional role)
Ex. Tariffs: Japan vs. the Steel industry
Client Politics- benefits to identifiable group w/o costs to any distinct group (Congress is central)
Ex. Israel policy (may be changing!)

3. Constitutional/Legal Context
Constitution creates “invitation to struggle” between President and Congress
Pres Commander-in-Chief, Congress appropriates $
Pres appoints, Senate confirms
Pres negotiates treaties, Senate ratifies
Americans perceive President as being in charge, which history confirms

4. President’s Power
President is stronger in foreign policy than domestic
Pres can send troops w/o declaration of war
Probably stronger power than framers intended
But…president is weaker when compared to other heads of state
Wilson, FDR couldn’t get ally with Britain
Wilson couldn’t join League of Nations
HW Bush debated Congress on Iraq war
Supreme Court gives wide powers
Reluctant to intervene in Pres-Congress disputes
Ex. FDR and Japanese internment camps, Nixon enlarging Vietnam war, Carter’s freezing of Iranian assets

5. Checks on President’s Power
Political rather than constitutional
Congress controls the $$$
War Powers Act of restricts the president
If Pres commits troops he must report it to Congress within 48 hours
Only 60 day commitment w/o declaring war
Previously, Congress could use legislative veto to bring troops home
Has had very little influence, politically impossible (Congress will of course support successful military action)

6. Effects of War Powers Act
Congress rarely invokes it
Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush, Clinton all sent troops w/o authorization
Politically impossible
Congress wouldn’t challenge successful military action (even Vietnam)
Constitutionality is questionable (so they don’t push it)

7. Machinery of Foreign Policy
Post-WWII major power status consequences:
President more involved in foreign affairs (top of agenda)
More agencies shape foreign policy
Too many and too big to really be coordinated (Sec. of State is only 1 person, agencies owe no loyalty to him)
National Security Council created to coordinate

8. National Security Council (NSC)
Created by law, chaired by the president
Includes VP and secretaries of state and defense
National Security Advisor heads the staff
Goal of staff is balanced view
Grown in influence since JFK but downgraded by Reagan
NSC rivals Secretary of State
Consequences of multi-centered decision-making:
“it’s never over”- rivalry between branches for foreign policy power
Agency positions influence their interests and policy

9. Foreign Policy and Public Opinion
Before WWII public opposed US involvement
Attack on Pearl Harbor shifted opinion
WWII
Universally popular war
Successful
US emerged as dominant power in the world
Public opinion varies, is highly general, and is dependent on:
polling questions
opinions expressed by leaders
impact of world events

10. Backing the President
Public tends to support the president during crisis (approval ratings go up!)
Support does not decrease with casualties
Body bag fallacy: soldiers come home in coffins
Support for escalation and victory
Most wars do have public opposition
Highest among Democrats, African Americans, and those with post-grad degrees
*In sum: People are leery of wars until they start, then they support them and want to win.

11. Mass vs. Elite Opinion Mass Opinion: Elite Opinion:
Generally poorly informed
Generally supportive of the president
Conservative, less internationalist
Elite Opinion:
Better informed
Opinions change more rapidly (Vietnam)
Protest on moral/philosophical grounds
More liberal and internationalist
Even more so in leaders active in politics, academia, media, or other organizations concerned with foreign affairs

12. Cleavages among Foreign Policy Elites
Events have no meaning until interpreted by people who must react to them
Who are the elites?
Administrative position in foreign policy field(State dept, NSC), key congressional committees, various private organizations, editors of relevant publications

13. The Defense Budget Total Spending
Very low spending in peacetime until 1950
Driven up by Containment policy for USSR
Changes in spending tend to reflect changes in public opinion
Debate once USSR fell:
Liberals: cut defense, we aren’t world’s “police officer”
Conservatives: some cuts ok, but world is still dangerous and we must be ready
Saddam Hussein soon proved them right
Involvement in war in Bosnia proved military had been cut too much…Clinton increased spending

14. What do we get with our money?
People- most expensive
From draft to all volunteer since 1973
More women, “Don’t Ask Don’t Tell” recently overruled
“Readiness” –Training, supplies, food, fuel, etc
1st to get cut due to client politics (no constituents to get mad)
Bases- at one time many opened and few closed due to client politics
Commission on Base Realignment and Closure created to take client politics out of the decision

15. What do we get with our money?
Hardware: big ticket items and small ticket items
Cost overruns: actual cost is more than estimated cost. Why?:
Unpredictability of cost of new item
Incentive for contractor to underestimate cost at 1st
Military chiefs want only the best
“Gold plating”- ask for everything at once
Sole-sourcing- new weapons are purchased from a single contractor…so no competition
When cutting defense budget Congress will not cut but stretch (start and stop production drives up the cost)

16. Structure of Defense Decision Making
National Security Act of created Dept of Defense
Headed by Sec. of Defense (must be civilian)- command authority over defense on behalf of pres
Sec. of Army, Air Force, Navy, (also civilians)
manage daily functions
Joint Chiefs of Staff (military)
Branches of military kept separate- Why?
Fear if unified they would become too powerful
Desire of services to preserve autonomy
Inter-service rivalries intended by Congress to increase info

17. Structure of Defense Decision Making
Joint Chiefs of Staff- committee of heads of 4 military branches, chairman, vice chair, and military officers appointed by the pres./confirmed by Senate
No command authority over troops
Key to national defense planning
Since 1986 reorganization, Chairman of JCS has been president’s principal military advisor
Chain of Command: Pres Sec. Defense various specified commands (these can go through JCS, but they have no command power)
Civilians head the military to protect from concentration of power