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AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes
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With your partner, decide if the following are true or false:
Most people only use about 10% of their brains. People with schizophrenia have more than one personality. All effective therapies require clients get to the root of their problems in childhood. All people with dyslexia see words backwards. Drinking coffee is a good way to sober up after drinking. Memories of everything we’ve experienced are stored permanently in our brains, even if we can’t access them. The more people present in an emergency, the more likely it is that at least one of them will help. Newborn babies are virtually blind. If you are unsure of your answer on a test, it’s best to stick with your original answer. People tend to be romantically attracted to people with opposite to their own personalities.
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Science of Psychology Think Critically: reflect and evaluate evidence
Using Scientific principles Skepticism: Question other’s results Leads to replication Objectivity: See things as they are, not as we want. Learn to accept results that do not support your theory. Curiosity: Why are things the way they are? Leads to experimentation
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Neurological/Physiological Level
Psychology Social Level The scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior Spans multiple levels of analysis Behavioral Level Mental Level Neurological/Physiological Level Neurochemical Level Molecular Level
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Example: Depression Lack of social support Social Level
Less engagement in + activities Behavioral Level Negative cognitions about self Mental Level Differential amygdala activation Neurological/Physiological Level Reduced serotonin in synapse Neurochemical Level Genes that predispose Molecular Level
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Pseudo-Science A claim, belief, or practice which is presented as scientific, but does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific status
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Growth of psychology
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Psychology’s Roots Are in Philosophy
Prescientific Psychology Do you have a soul? Is the mind connected to the body or distinct? Are ideas inborn or is the mind a blank slate filled by experience?
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Psychology’s Roots Psychological Science Is Born Empiricism –
Knowledge comes from experience via the senses Science flourishes through observation and experiment
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Psychology’s Roots Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory at the University of Liepzig (c. 1879) Wundt’s significance? By insisting on measurement and experimentation he moves Psych from Philosophy to Science
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Psychology’s Roots Bradford Titchener
Emulates the analysis of compounds by looking at atoms Structuralism used introspection (looking in) to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
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Psychology’s Roots Structuralism –
School of psychology that stressed the basic units of experience (physical sensation, feelings, and memories) and the combinations in which they occur. Study these ‘atoms of experience’ to get the structure of the mind
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Psychology’s Roots William James Rejects Structuralism
Influenced by Darwin Functionalism –theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its enviroment.
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The Growth of Psychology
Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic psychology Behavior results from forces at work within the individual, often at an unconscious level Sexual and aggressive drives Late 1800s Lasting Impact of the field Hard to prove or disprove scientifically
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Return to the observable in the early 1900s
John B. Watson: Behaviorism Studied only observable behaviors Expanded upon the work of Pavlov B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism revisited Expanded behaviorism Viewed the mind as a “black box” that was irrelevant
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The Cognitive Revolution
The precursors to cognitive psychology: Gestalt psychology Study of how we perceive objects as whole patterns Therapy that wishes to treat the whole person Humanistic psychology Emphasizes realization of full potential Recognizes importance of love, self esteem, belonging, and self-actualization
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The Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s
Study of mental processes Thinking Learning Feeling Remembering Decision making
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New Directions in Psychology
Evolutionary psychology Studies the adaptive value of behaviors and mental processes Positive psychology Study of the subjective feelings of happiness and well-being Focus is on positive attitude Response away from victimization
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Multiple Perspectives
There is no single right answer Several perspectives can provide insight into behavior
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What is Psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Scientific? Not just common sense or guesses Psychology uses the scientific method Scientific Method is careful observations and the experimental testing of hypothesis Behavior – what people do on the outside Mental Processes – What is going on inside someone's head. We call this cognition. Psychology includes the study of both humans and animals
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Psychology As Science Psychologists use the scientific method
Steps to the scientific method Collect data Generate a theory to explain the data Produce a testable hypothesis Systematically test the hypothesis
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Psychology’s Big Issues
Nature-nurture controversy Are we a product of innate, inborn tendencies controlled by our genetic make-up? Are we a reflection of experiences and upbringing? Person–Situation Is behavior caused by factors inside the person or outside? Stability–Change Are behavior patterns learned in childhood permanent or do people change over time? Diversity-Universality How am I like every person, like some people, and like no one else? Mind–Body What is the relationship between the mind and the body?
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Approaches to the field of Psychology
Biological Evolutionary Behavioral Cognitive Psychodynamic Humanistic Social
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1. Biological Psychology
Investigates the biological basis of human behavior, thoughts and emotions. Looks at how the following biological mechanisms effect your behavior and mental processes. Brain Neurotransmitters Hormones Drugs (both legal and illegal) Gender differences in brain structure and function
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2. Evolutionary Psychology
Asks the question: How did our species get to be the way we are? Language – Why do we talk? Altruism – Why are we nice to each other? Sexual attraction / mate selection – Why are some people considered beautiful? Answers these questions by looking at what would most help us pass on our genetic code. Very concerned with reproduction!
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3. Behavioral This approach only studies observable human behavior focusing on how we learn, react and manipulate our environment. We learn observable responses through conditioning or by trying to get rewards/avoid punishments. Mind is a BLACK BOX. Can’t see it? Don’t study it. Big names Pavlov – Dogs Watson – Little Albert Skinner – Operant Conditioning
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4. Cognitive Psychology School of psychology that studies mental processes Thinking, feeling, remembering, making decisions and judgments Studies how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. Studies behavior and makes inferences about the mental processes behind the behavior Thanks to new technologies like CAT scans, MRIs and fMRIs, we can open the black box.
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5. Psychodynamic Psychology
Personality theory that says behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts Unconscious is a dynamic cauldron of primitive drives, forbidden desires and nameless fears Psychoanalysis – patient lies on a couch and recounts dreams and conducts free association. Sigmund Freud
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6. Humanistic Psychology
School of psychology that emphasizes nonverbal experiences and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full human potential Importance of love, belonging, human potential, and self-esteem. Abraham Maslow Not mainstream, more a cultural and spiritual movement.
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7. Sociocultural Psychology
Study of how people influence one another Topics include: First impressions Interpersonal attraction Attitude formation Prejudice Behavior in a group Obedience to Authority Some Applications include: Support groups Family Therapy Sensitivity Training
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Approach Example
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Careers in Psychology Clinical and Counseling Developmental
Educational Experimental I/O (Health, Sports, Motivation) Personality Psychometric Social-Psychology
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1. Clinical and Counseling Psychology
About 50% of all Psychologists Counseling psychologists deal with “normal” problems, such as stress caused by career change or marital problems Counseling psychologist’s focus more on the psychologically healthy individual where clinical focuses on individuals with serious mental illness (e.g. schizophrenia). Clinical psychologists are concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Split time between treatment and researching the cause of psychological disorders and the effectiveness of different types of psychotherapy and counseling.
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2. Developmental Psychology
Study of physical and mental growth from birth to old age study of changing abilities from womb to tomb Subfields Child psychology Adolescent psychology Life-span psychology
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3. Educational Psychology
School Psychologist psychological evaluations consult with school personnel in relation to students’ learning, behavior, and environments they are trained to look at the effectiveness of academic programs, classroom agendas, and treatment interventions, which assists in the development of specific interventions.
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4. Experimental Psychology
Design research experiments May or may not have a direct impact on the treatment of patients Animal subjects Drug trials
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5. Human Factors The science of understanding the properties of human capability (Human Factors Science). The application of this understanding to the design, development and deployment of systems and services (Human Factors Engineering). It can also be called ergonomics.
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6. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Study of psychological principles in industry and business Examples Selecting and training personnel Productivity improvement Optimizing working conditions Managing the impact of automation on workers
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7. Personality Psychology
Study of how people differ from one another on traits such as Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
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7. Psychometics Test creation Validity Reliablity Culture fair
Statistics
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Psychiatry A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders
Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy
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Licenses in Psychology
Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D. Psychiatrists - M.D. Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D. Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSW Marriage Family Therapists - M.A.
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Research Methods: Experiments
AP Psychology Credit Todd Daniel of Great Ideas in Psychology Podcast (available on Itunes U) for the idea of starting a Psychology class like this. Research Methods: Experiments
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Research Methods – Essential Methods
How do psychologists use the scientific method to study behavior and mental processes? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the different research methods? How do psychologists draw appropriate conclusions about behavior from research?
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Be curious! Does involvement in HS athletics improve academic performance? Does excessive texting impede face-to-face relationships? Does personality influence musical preferences? Do ads portraying unrealistic body types reduce the self-image of the viewer? Does student consumption of caffeine in the morning improve first period grades? Does gamification of the classroom improve increase student engagement?
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Be curious! Does a community service requirement positively or negatively impact student opinions of community service? Do we use twitter/facebook/ask.fm/ etc. as an appropriate outline for angst? Do teacher websites improve student performance in class? Does focus on minor rules (flip-flops and hats) reduce student adherence to major rules (insubordination or class cutting)?
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Research Methods Description – gathering evidence about A and B
Correlation – A and B are related Experiment – A causes B
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Descriptive Research Methods in Psychology
Case Studies Detailed in-depth description and analysis of one or a few people Observation, scores on psychological tests, interviews etc. Prominent in psychology Piaget used this to develop his theory of cognitive development Takes advantage of nonreplicable situations Observer bias is a problem Unable to make generalizations past person being studied
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Research Methods in Psychology
Naturalistic Observation Systematic observation in natural setting The main drawback is observer bias (expectations or biases of the observer that might distort or influence the interpretation of what was observed.) Observing and recording behavior of animals in the wild, to recording self-seating patterns in lunch rooms in a multiracial school constitutes naturalistic observation. Not replicable so you can’t generalize
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Research Methods in Psychology
Surveys A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people. Questionnaires or interviews, such as polls prior to an election Can generate a lot of information for a fairly low cost Questions must be constructed carefully so as to not elicit socially appropriate answers
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Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect Wording can change the results of a survey. Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)
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False Consensus Effect
Survey False Consensus Effect A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. * Stronger When* The behavior is seen to come from strong situational factors. The matter at hand is seen as being important to the person. When we are largely sure we are correct.
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Example Jeremy is always trying to climb the corporate ladder and has no shortage of sexual partners. In contrast, Justin, his subordinate at work, makes no effort to reach a higher position and is happy in his monogamous marriage to his high school sweetheart. Justin claims that he is quite happy as he is, but Jeremy insists that he is a “beta male” who has buried his real desires because he is too afraid to pursue them. projects his beliefs, abilities, and desires upon others. When others do not live up to his standards, concludes there is something wrong with him
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Operational Definition
An exact description of how to derive a value for a characteristic you are measuring. It includes a precise definition of the characteristic and how, specifically, data collectors are to measure the characteristic. What you are studying determines the type of data you get.
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Survey Random Sampling
From a population if each member has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are questionable. The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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Comparison Research Method Advantages Limitations Naturalistic
Observation More accurate than reports after the fact Behavior is more natural Observer can alter behavior Observational Bias Cannot be generalized Case Studies Depth Takes advantage of circumstances that could not be coordinated in an experiment Not representative Time consuming and expensive Surveys Immense amount of data Quick and inexpensive Sampling biases can skew results Bad Questions can corrupt data Accuracy depends on the ability and willingness of the participants.
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Research Methods in Psychology
Experimental Research The only research method that can be used to determine cause and effect Often called the experimental method A researcher systematically manipulates a variable under controlled conditions.
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Components of an Experiment
Participants or subjects Variable – Factors that can have different values Operational Definition – Describes the specific procedure used to determine the presence of a variable Independent variable (IV) Cause (what you are studying) This is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter Dependent variable (DV) Effect (result of experiment) This is the variable that is measured by the experimenter It DEPENDS on the independent variable Participants1 students Variable2 – Gender and Reaction Time Operational Definition3 – Reaction Time Stick Independent variable (IV)4 - Gender Dependent variable (DV)5 - Reaction Time
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Components of an Experiment cont’d
Things to worry about Confounding/Intervening Variables – differences (other than the IV of course) that arise due to poor planning, sloppy work, or bias. Experimenter Bias - Expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or its interpretation. Confounding Variables6 – differences in athletic ability, notification, position of the reaction timer Experimenter Bias7 – I am sooo biased
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Hint A good way to determine the IV from the DV is to word the Hypothesis in the form of an “If then . . .” statement. What follows the IF is the IV What follows the THEN is the DV
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Components of an Experiment that involves treatments of some kind.
Experimental group Receives treatment or has the DV changed Control group Does not receive treatment or doesn’t have the DV changed, but is the same in every other way Demand Characteristics – clues participants perceive about the experiment suggesting how they should respond.
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Clinical Research Studies performed in humans that are intended to increase knowledge about how well a diagnostic test or treatment works in a particular patient population.
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Clinical Research cont’d
Single-blind Procedure Participants don’t know which treatment group – experimental or control – they are in Placebo / Placebo effect Fake treatment / Some paricipants expect improvement in health so they imagine it Double-blind Procedure In evaluating drug therapies it important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and which placebo.
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Clinical Research cont’d
Random Assignment Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups. This is not the same as random selection!
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Breast milk makes babies smarter!
A summary of steps during experimentation. Breast milk makes babies smarter!
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Exploring Cause and Effect
Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect Like other sciences, experimentation makes the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
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Research Methods: Correlation
AP Psychology Research Methods: Correlation
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Hypothesis Hypothesis is a testable prediction that lets us accept, reject or revise a theory. For Example: If families do not stress gender differences then there will be fewer sex differences in siblings.
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Families influence the gendering of their children.
Theory Theory is an EXPLANATION based on evidence that PREDICTS behaviors or events. A Theory must: 1. Fit the known facts 2. Predict new discoveries 3. Be falsifiable 4. Be simple. The simpler the better – Occam’s Razor Families influence the gendering of their children. If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
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Research Methods in Psychology
Correlational Research Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables Used to make PREDICTIONS, such as the relation between SAT scores and success at college Cannot be used to determine cause and effect
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Scatterplots Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) Scatterplot is a graph that comprises of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, The amount of scatter shows the strength of relationship.
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Scatterplots Perfect negative No relationship (0.00)
correlation (-1.00) No relationship (0.00) Scatterplot on the left shows a relation between the variables, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.
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(positive or negative)
Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Correlation coefficient r = + 0.37 OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction. Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship between two variables. Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative)
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Study of Low Self Esteem and Depression
You do the research because you assume the two are related Compare two variables Variable 1 = Score on a self-esteem test Variable 2 = Length of a bought of depression in months
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Score on a self-esteem test
Length of a bought of depression in months
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Correlation and Causation
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Correlation is not Causation: It only predicts!!!!
Children with big feet reason better than children with small feet. (Children who are older have bigger feet than younger children; thus they can reason better) Study done in Korea: The most predictive factor in the use of birth control use was the number of appliances in the home. (Those who have electrical appliances probably have higher socioeconomic level, and thus are probably better educated.)
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Correlation is not Causation: It only predicts!!!!
People who often ate Frosted Flakes as children had half the cancer rate of those who never ate the cereal. Conversely, those who often ate oatmeal as children were four times more likely to develop cancer than those who did not. Cancer tends to be a disease of later life. Those who ate Frosted Flakes are younger. In fact, the cereal was not around until the 1950s (when older respondents were children, and so they are much more likely to have eaten oatmeal.)
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In a Gallup poll, surveyors asked, “Do you believe correlation implies causation?’”
64% of American’s answered “Yes” . 38% replied “No”. The other 8% were undecided.
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The Simpsons (Season 7, "Much Apu About Nothing")
Homer: Not a bear in sight. The "Bear Patrol" is working like a charm! Lisa: That's specious reasoning, Dad. Homer: [uncomprehendingly] Thanks, honey. Lisa: By your logic, I could claim that this rock keeps tigers away. Homer: Hmm. How does it work? Lisa: It doesn't work; it's just a stupid rock! Homer: Uh-huh. Lisa: But I don't see any tigers around, do you? Homer: (pause) Lisa, I want to buy your rock.
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Consider the following research undertaken by the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio appearing to show a link between consumption of diet soda and weight gain. The study of more than 600 normal-weight people found, eight years later, that they were 65 percent more likely to be overweight if they drank one diet soda a day than if they drank none. And if they drank two or more diet sodas a day, they were even more likely to become overweight or obese.
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Third or Missing Variable Problem A relationship other than causal might exist between the two variables. It's possible that there is some other variable or factor that is causing the outcome.
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There are two relationships which can be mistaken for causation:
Common response Confounding
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Ice cream sales and the number of shark attacks on swimmers are correlated.
Skirt lengths and stock prices are highly correlated (as stock prices go up, skirt lengths get shorter). The number of cavities in elementary school children and vocabulary size are strongly correlated.
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1. Common Response: Both X and Y respond to changes in some unobserved variable, Z. All three of our previous examples are examples of common response.
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