1. Chapter 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control

2. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction?
Habitat
Hunted: early 1900s
Partial recovery
Why care about sea otters?
Ethics
Tourism dollars
Keystone species

3. Southern Sea Otter
Figure 5.1: An endangered southern sea otter in Monterey Bay, California (USA), uses a stone to crack the shell of a clam (left). It lives in a giant kelp bed (right). Scientific studies indicate that the otters act as a keystone species in a kelp forest system by helping to control the populations of sea urchins and other kelp-eating species.
Fig. 5-1a, p. 104

4. 5-1 How Do Species Interact?
Concept 5-1 Five types of species interactions—competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism—affect the resource use and population sizes of the species in an ecosystem.

5. Species Interact in Five Major Ways
Interspecific Competition
Predation
Parasitism
Mutualism
Commensalism

6. Most Species Compete with One Another for Certain Resources
For limited resources
Ecological niche for exploiting resources
Some niches overlap

7. Some Species Evolve Ways to Share Resources
Resource partitioning
Using only parts of resource
Using at different times
Using in different ways

8. Black-throated Green Warbler Yellow-rumped Warbler
Blackburnian Warbler
Black-throated Green Warbler
Cape May Warbler
Bay-breasted Warbler
Yellow-rumped Warbler
Figure 5.2: Sharing the wealth: This diagram illustrates resource partitioning among five species of insect-eating warblers in the spruce forests of the U.S. state of Maine. Each species minimizes competition with the others for food by spending at least half its feeding time in a distinct portion (yellow highlighted areas) of the spruce trees, and by consuming somewhat different insect species. (After R. H. MacArthur, “Population Ecology of Some Warblers in Northeastern Coniferous Forests,” Ecology 36 (1958): 533–536.)
Fig. 5-2, p. 106

9. Insect and nectar eaters
Fruit and seed eaters
Insect and nectar eaters
Greater Koa-finch
Kuai Akialaoa
Amakihi
Kona Grosbeak
Crested Honeycreeper
Akiapolaau
Figure 5.3: Specialist species of honeycreepers: Through natural selection, different species of honeycreepers developed specialized ecological niches that reduced competition between these species. Each species has evolved a specialized beak to take advantage of certain types of food resources.
Maui Parrotbill
Apapane
Unknown finch ancestor
Fig. 5-3, p. 107

10. Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (1)
Predators may capture prey by
Walking
Swimming
Flying
Pursuit and ambush
Camouflage
Chemical warfare

11. Predator-Prey Relationships
Figure 5.4: Predator-prey relationship: This brown bear (the predator) in the U.S. state of Alaska has captured and will feed on this salmon (the prey).
Fig. 5-4, p. 107

12. Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (2)
Prey may avoid capture by
Run, swim, fly
Protection: shells, bark, thorns
Camouflage
Chemical warfare
Warning coloration
Mimicry
Deceptive looks
Deceptive behavior

13. (b) Wandering leaf insect
(a) Span worm
(b) Wandering leaf insect
(c) Bombardier beetle
(d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly
(e) Poison dart frog
(f) Viceroy butterfly mimics
monarch butterfly
(g) Hind wings of Io moth
resemble eyes of a much
larger animal.
(h) When touched,
snake caterpillar changes
shape to look like head of snake.
Stepped Art
Fig. 5-5, p. 109

14. Predator and Prey Interactions Can Drive Each Other’s Evolution
Intense natural selection pressures between predator and prey populations
Coevolution
Interact over a long period of time
Bats and moths: echolocation of bats and sensitive hearing of moths

15. Coevolution: A Langohrfledermaus Bat Hunting a Moth
Fig. 5-6, p. 110

16. Some Species Feed off Other Species by Living on or in Them
Parasitism
Parasite is usually much smaller than the host
Parasite rarely kills the host
Parasite-host interaction may lead to coevolution

17. Parasitism: Trout with Blood-Sucking Sea Lamprey
Fig. 5-7, p. 110

18. In Some Interactions, Both Species Benefit
Mutualism
Nutrition and protection relationship
Gut inhabitant mutualism
Not cooperation: it’s mutual exploitation

19. Mutualism: Hummingbird and Flower
Figure 5.8: Mutualism: This hummingbird benefits by feeding on nectar in this flower, and it benefits the flower by pollinating it.
Fig. 5-8, p. 110

20. (a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros
Figure 5.9: Examples of mutualism: (a) Oxpeckers (or tickbirds) feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick-skinned animals such as the endangered black rhinoceros. (b) A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly, stinging sea anemones and helps to protect the anemones from some of their predators.
(a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros
Fig. 5-9a, p. 111

21. (b) Clownfish and sea anemone
Figure 5.9: Examples of mutualism: (a) Oxpeckers (or tickbirds) feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick-skinned animals such as the endangered black rhinoceros. (b) A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly, stinging sea anemones and helps to protect the anemones from some of their predators.
(b) Clownfish and sea anemone
Fig. 5-9b, p. 111

22. In Some Interactions, One Species Benefits and the Other Is Not Harmed
Commensalism
Epiphytes
Birds nesting in trees

23. Commensalism: Bromiliad Roots on Tree Trunk Without Harming Tree
Figure 5.10: In an example of commensalism, this bromeliad—an epiphyte, or air plant—in Brazil’s Atlantic tropical rain forest roots on the trunk of a tree, rather than in soil, without penetrating or harming the tree. In this interaction, the epiphyte gains access to sunlight, water, and nutrients from the tree’s debris; the tree apparently remains unharmed and gains no benefit.
Fig. 5-10, p. 111

24. 5-2 What Limits the Growth of Populations?
Concept 5-2 No population can continue to grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.

25. Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (1)
Population: group of interbreeding individuals of the same species
Population distribution
Clumping
Uniform dispersion
Random dispersion

26. Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (2)
Why clumping?
Species tend to cluster where resources are available
Groups have a better chance of finding clumped resources
Protects some animals from predators
Packs allow some to get prey

27. Population of Snow Geese
Figure 5.11: This large group of birds is a population, or flock, of snow geese.
Fig. 5-11, p. 112

28. Generalized Dispersion Patterns
Figure 5.12: This diagram illustrates three general dispersion patterns for populations. Clumps (a) are the most common dispersion pattern, mostly because resources such as grass and water are usually found in patches. Where such resources are scarce, uniform dispersion (b) is more common. Where they are plentiful, a random dispersion (c) is more likely. Question: Why do you think elephants live in clumps or groups?
Fig. 5-12, p. 112

29. Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (1)
Population size governed by
Births
Deaths
Immigration
Emigration
Population change =
(births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)

30. Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (2)
Age structure
Pre-reproductive age
Reproductive age
Post-reproductive age

31. Some Factors Can Limit Population Size
Range of tolerance
Variations in physical and chemical environment
Limiting factor principle
Too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance
Precipitation
Nutrients
Sunlight, etc

32. Trout Tolerance of Temperature
Figure 5.13: This diagram illustrates the range of tolerance for a population of organisms, such as trout, to a physical environmental factor—in this case, water temperature. Range of tolerance restrictions prevent particular species from taking over an ecosystem by keeping their population size in check. Question: For humans, what is an example of a range of tolerance for a physical environmental factor?
Fig. 5-13, p. 113

33. No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (1)
Size of populations controlled by limiting factors:
Light
Water
Space
Nutrients
Exposure to too many competitors, predators or infectious diseases

34. No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (2)
Environmental resistance
All factors that act to limit the growth of a population
Carrying capacity (K)
Maximum population a given habitat can sustain

35. No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J-Curves and S-Curves (3)
Exponential growth
Starts slowly, then accelerates to carrying capacity when meets environmental resistance
Logistic growth
Decreased population growth rate as population size reaches carrying capacity

36. Population overshoots carrying capacity Carrying capacity
2.0
Population overshoots carrying capacity
Carrying capacity
1.5
Population recovers and stabilizes
Population runs out of resources
and crashes
Number of sheep (millions)
1.0
Exponential growth .5
Figure 5.15: This graph tracks the logistic growth of a sheep population on the island of Tasmania between 1800 and After sheep were introduced in 1800, their population grew exponentially, thanks to an ample food supply and few predators. By 1855, they had overshot the land’s carrying capacity. Their numbers then stabilized and fluctuated around a carrying capacity of about 1.6 million sheep.
1800
1825
1850
1875
1900
1925
Year
Fig. 5-15, p. 115

37. Science Focus: Why Do California’s Sea Otters Face an Uncertain Future?
Low biotic potential
Prey for orcas
Cat parasites
Thorny-headed worms
Toxic algae blooms
PCBs and other toxins
Oil spills

38. Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So
Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So. California (U.S.)
Figure 5.B: This graph tracks the population size of southern sea otters off the coast of the U.S. state of California, 1983–2009. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the California southern sea otter population would have to reach at least 3,090 animals for 3 years in a row before it could be considered for removal from the endangered species list. (Data from U.S. Geological Survey)
Fig. 5-B, p. 114

39. Case Study: Exploding White-Tailed Deer Population in the U.S.
1900: deer habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting
1920s–1930s: laws to protect the deer
Current population explosion for deer
Spread Lyme disease
Deer-vehicle accidents
Eating garden plants and shrubs
Ways to control the deer population

40. Mature Male White-Tailed Deer
Figure 5.16: This is a mature male (buck) white-tailed deer.
Fig. 5-16, p. 115

41. When a Population Exceeds Its Habitat’s Carrying Capacity, Its Population Can Crash
A population exceeds the area’s carrying capacity
Reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot
Population crash
Damage may reduce area’s carrying capacity

42. Population overshoots carrying capacity 2,000
1,500
Population crashes
Number of reindeer
1,000
Figure 5.17: This graph tracks the exponential growth, overshoot, and population crash of reindeer introduced onto the small Bering Sea island of St. Paul. When 26 reindeer (24 of them female) were introduced in 1910, lichens, mosses, and other food sources were plentiful. By 1935, the herd size had soared to 2,000, overshooting the island’s carrying capacity. This led to a population crash, when the herd size plummeted to only 8 reindeer by Question: Why do you think the sizes of some populations level off while others such as the reindeer in this example exceed their carrying capacities and crash?
Carrying capacity
500
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
Year
Fig. 5-17, p. 116

43. Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns (1)
Some species
Many, usually small, offspring
Little or no parental care
Massive deaths of offspring
Insects, bacteria, algae

44. Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns (2)
Other species
Reproduce later in life
Small number of offspring with long life spans
Young offspring grow inside mother
Long time to maturity
Protected by parents, and potentially groups
Humans
Elephants

45. Under Some Circumstances Population Density Affects Population Size
Density-dependent population controls
Predation
Parasitism
Infectious disease
Competition for resources

46. Several Different Types of Population Change Occur in Nature
Stable
Irruptive
Population surge, followed by crash
Cyclic fluctuations, boom-and-bust cycles
Top-down population regulation
Bottom-up population regulation
Irregular

47. Population size (thousands)
160
Hare
Lynx
140
120
100 80
Population size (thousands) 60 40 20
Figure 5.18: This graph represents the population cycles for the snowshoe hare and the Canadian lynx. At one time, scientists believed these curves provided evidence that these predator and prey populations regulated one another. More recent research suggests that the periodic swings in the hare population are caused by a combination of top-down population control—through predation by lynx and other predators—and bottom-up population control, in which changes in the availability of the food supply for hares help to determine their population size, which in turn helps to determine the lynx population size. (Data from D. A. MacLulich)
1845
1855
1865
1875
1885
1895
1905
1915
1925
1935
Year
Fig. 5-18, p. 118

48. Humans Are Not Exempt from Nature’s Population Controls
Ireland
Potato crop in 1845
Bubonic plague
Fourteenth century
AIDS
Global epidemic

49. 5-3 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions?
Concept 5-3 The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in response to changing environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession.

50. Communities and Ecosystems Change over Time: Ecological Succession
Natural ecological restoration
Primary succession
Secondary succession

51. Some Ecosystems Start from Scratch: Primary Succession
No soil in a terrestrial system
No bottom sediment in an aquatic system
Takes hundreds to thousands of years
Need to build up soils/sediments to provide necessary nutrients

52. paper birch, and white spruce forest community Jack pine,
Balsam fir,
paper birch, and white spruce forest community
Jack pine,
black spruce,
and aspen
Heath mat
Small herbs
and shrubs
Lichens and
mosses
Exposed
rocks
Time
Stepped Art
Fig. 5-19, p. 119

53. Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (1)
Some soil remains in a terrestrial system
Some bottom sediment remains in an aquatic system
Ecosystem has been
Disturbed
Removed
Destroyed

54. Mature oak and hickory forest
Young pine forest
with developing
understory of oak
and hickory trees
Shrubs and
small pine
seedlings
Perennial
weeds and
grasses
Annual
weeds
Time
Stepped Art
Fig. 5-20, p. 120

55. Secondary Ecological Succession in Yellowstone Following the 1998 Fire
Figure 5.21: These young lodgepole pines growing around standing dead trees after a 1998 forest fire in Yellowstone National Park are an example of secondary ecological succession.
Fig. 5-21, p. 120

56. Some Ecosystems Do Not Have to Start from Scratch: Secondary Succession (2)
Primary and secondary succession
Tend to increase biodiversity
Increase species richness and interactions among species
Primary and secondary succession can be interrupted by
Fires
Hurricanes
Clear-cutting of forests
Plowing of grasslands
Invasion by nonnative species

57. Science Focus: How Do Species Replace One Another in Ecological Succession?
Facilitation
Inhibition
Tolerance

58. Succession Doesn’t Follow a Predictable Path
Traditional view
Balance of nature and a climax community
Current view
Ever-changing mosaic of patches of vegetation
Mature late-successional ecosystems
State of continual disturbance and change

59. Living Systems Are Sustained through Constant Change
Inertia, persistence
Ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances
Resilience
Ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a moderate disturbance
Some systems have one property, but not the other: tropical rainforests

60. Three Big Ideas
Certain interactions among species affect their use of resources and their population sizes.
There are always limits to population growth in nature.
Changes in environmental conditions cause communities and ecosystems to gradually alter their species composition and population sizes (ecological succession).