2. Experiments: lab and field Correlational Studies – surveys and interviews Case Studies Naturalistic Observations

3. * Causation * Keep in mind that LAB experiments are intended to be artificial. * Some experiments are conducted in the field to gain ecological validity. * Issue of culture in experimentation

4. * Correlation allows us to apply research findings to larger groups, but… Hofstede (1973) – IBM and cultural dimensions * Observations do not involve manipulation of variables. Festinger (1956) – “when prophecy fails” * An observation can take the form of an ethnography in cultural psychology– what’s the goal?

5. * Lab experiments that cause stress – Milgram, Zimbardo, Asch. * Is the deception worth it? * Is it ethical to activate a stereotype? * Is it ethical to induce compliance? * Can we afford NOT to study it? * Research must be presented to those studied. * Must have informed consent. * Recognize that by studying cultures, you might change them.

6. * “A unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life.”* * The 4 Components: * Meaning and information system * Shared by a group * Transmitted across generations * Helps to meet basic needs

7. * Enculturation – learning the practices of culture * Cultural Norms – expected ways of behavior that align with the group’s beliefs about what is acceptable. * Objective vs. Subjective culture

8. * Etics – universal behaviors. * Emics – culture-specific behaviors * Etic based research looks at cross-cultural comparisons. * Emic based research explores the uniqueness of an individual culture – the meaning of these behaviors can only be defined from within the culture being studied. * A lack of understanding etics and emics is a major flaw in most psychological research… why?

9. * Etic exists that the psychological mechanisms and experience of disorders is very similar. * WHO (1983) found that depression patients in Switz., Canada, Japan and Iran had some common symptoms using a standard diagnostic scheme. * However 40% displayed somatic symptoms that were not measured by the diagnostic scheme.

10. * Manson et al (1985) developed an American Indian Depression scale. * Worry sickness * Unhappiness * Heartbroken * Druken-like craziness * Disappointment * The Hopi did not have a word equivalent to depression. Some of their characteristics were similar to the Western standard, others were very different.

11. * What are the differences between emics of depression and Western etics of evaluation and treatment? * An interview study of Pakistani women in the UK. – interviews conducted in family groups…problems? * Results showed the mental disorder centering on physical symptoms. * Also, most viewed aggression as a primary sign of abnormality. * Prevalent attitude that individuals should cope with the disorder on their own – issues with this?

12. * an aspect of culture that can be measured relative to other cultures * We think about the dimensions as continuums * We must be careful to avoid over-identifying people with a specific cultural trait.

13. * Hofstede studied survey data from IBM in the 1970s. * Collected data from workers in over 60 countries. * Did a factor analysis to find statistical relationships.

14. * The goal is to understand how culture affects individual behavior. The only way to accomplish this is by understanding fundamental differences among cultures. * These dimensions are known to exist because of the work done by cross-cultural researchers. * The dimensions work at the population level, not the individual level.

16. * Individualism v. Collectivism * Individualist – those within a culture are defined by personal characteristics * Collectivist – identity is defined by the characteristics of groups * Power Distance * The continuum is the extent to which cultures promote and legitimize power and status differences between individuals.

17. * Masculinity v. Femininity * Masculine – focus on achievement and possessions * Feminine – emphasis on interpersonal harmony. Also, there is considered less of a difference between the sexes. * Uncertainty Avoidance * The extent to which members feel threatened by ambiguous/unknown situations

18. * Long and Short Term Orientation/Time Orientation * Long Term – culture values delaying gratification of needs to focus on the future; culture values the preservation of traditions * Short Term – culture values gratifying needs as they come; less concerned with tradition, people strive for individual results

19. * Petrova et al (2007) – correlation study that compared Asian international and American students (at ASU). Students were asked to complete a survey that included a measure of individualist/collectivist tendencies. Later, they were asked to complete a follow up survey. * A similar percentage of students responded to the survey the first time (around 10%). But on the second try, 69% of Americans that responded to the first survey also responded to the second, whereas only 44% of Asians did the same. * So what does this suggest?

20. * Chen et al (2005) compared long-term and short-term orientation in Singaporean bicultural participants. The participants were primed to one cultural identity or the other, then participated in an online shopping scenario where a book could be delivered immediately for a charge, or later for free. Short-term orientation primed participants were more likely to have the book delivered immediately.

21. * Jones and Brown (2004) found that a person’s time orientation is correlated with their academic achievement. In this study they broke down past, present, and future orientation. * Those with future orientation (concern about future consequences) had the highest grades. * Jones (2003) study hypothesizes that people of African origin are more likely to have present orientation – a focus on living life and not planning it.