1. 7B – Thinking, Problems Solving, Creativity, and Language
Cognition
7A – Memory
7B – Thinking, Problems Solving, Creativity, and Language

2. Memory
Memory - the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Examples:
Sensory Memory
Long-term memory
Short-term
Working memory
Implicit/Procedural Memory
Explicit memory
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Flashbulb memory
Mood Congruent memory
Context Dependent Memory
Prospective Memory

3. The Memory Process Basic three step process….
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
Getting the info into the brain
Example: Getting the names of the 7 dwarfs into your brain
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
Retaining the info
Example: Rehearsing the names of the dwarfs so that they are stored in memory
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.
Getting the info back out
Example: Recalling or Recognizing the names of the dwarfs to get them back out of storage

4. 3 Memory Models Atkinson-Shiffrin 3 stage model
Modified Atkinson-Shiffrin
Connectivism Model

5. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s 3 Step Model of Memory
Sensory memory – brief recording of sensory information
Example: the sea of faces as you walk down the hallway
Short-term memory – memory that holds few items briefly before info is forgotten unless consciously activated
Example – a new phone number is remembered only long enough to dial it
Long –term memory – relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory.
Examples: Knowledge, skills, experiences (flashbulb)

6. Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory - A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information
Examples:.
Iconic Memory – momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
Echoic Memory – momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

7. Short Term Memory Short –term memory consciously activated
limited capacity –
Holds items for about 30 seconds without rehearsal
holds a few items briefly (7 digits +/-2) until it is forgotten or stored
Encoded visually, acoustically or semantically through rehearsal.
Short Term Memory Activity

8. Long Term Memory
Long-term memory - Unlimited storehouse of knowledge, skills and experiences.
Unlimited capacity
Relatively permanent
Organized and indexed
Examples:
Explicit (declarative) memories – (Facts)
Implicit (non-declarative) memories (remembering how to do a task)

9. Modified Atkinson – Shiffrin modified (3 Stage) Model
2 New concepts
Working Memory – active processing that combines novel (?) or important info along with info retrieved from long term memory
Instead of short-term memory being just a 20 sec. holding tank, this model includes the ability to briefly process info
Some info skips the 1st two stages in Atkinson’s/Shiffrins and is processed automatically into long-term memory
Example – Daydreaming in class

10. Modified Three-stage Model of Memory

11. Connectionism Model of Memory
Connectionism – theory that states that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons
Many neurons may work together to process a single memory
memory emerges from particular activation patterns within the network
retrieval of the memory is a reconstruction based on each of the elements of the pattern

12. On a piece of paper: Name the 3 memory models discussed today
On a piece of paper: Name the 3 memory models discussed today. Which do you think is most useful in explaining memory? Why? Did you encode the info? Is it in storage, if not why not? Are you able to retrieve it?

13. Name the 3 memory models we discussed yesterday
Pick 3 of the following terms and give an personal example of YOU using them:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Sensory Memory
Short-term Memory
Long-term Memory
Working Memory
Connectionism
Name the 3 memory models we discussed yesterday

14. How We Encode 2 Ways of Encoding Automatically Processing
Parallel
Effortful processing
Rehearsal

15. Encoding - Automatic Processing
Automatic Processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information
Examples: Unintentionally encoding…and later remembering
Time – day’s sequence of events, and remembering later you left your AP note cards on the lunch table
space – place on a page in your AP textbook where the term automatic processing occurs..
Frequency – number of times you saw your Mr. Gielink in the hall
well learned info – understand every word in your AP Textbook
Unique or engaging info – “pop out” effect; things that stand out

16. Automatic Processing
Parallel Processing – processing of many things simultaneously
Allows many sensory experiences to be encoded all at once, some automatically, some with effort
Example: process a red car coming straight at you, you know to get out of the way!

17. Spring is the the most beautiful time of the year
Automatic Processing
Spring is the the most beautiful time of the year

18. Encoding – Effortful Processing
Effortful Processing –encoding that requires conscious effort and attention
Example: Studying for your unit test on memory
Rehearsal – conscious repetition of info to encode it for storage
Example: Reviewing your AP note cards every night

19. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Ebbinghaus Curve - The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning
Used nonsense syllabus to study memory
JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX SUJ, XIR
The more time you rehearse on day 1, the less time it takes to relearn the info on day 2
Overlearning – additional rehearsal after we learn material increases retention

20. Effortful Processing
Spacing effect – distributed study is better for long-term recall than massed study (cramming)
DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
Example: Start studying now for your midterm—1/2 once per week!
Testing effect – repeated quizzing or testing improves retention
Example: giving comprehensive quizzes every month, or even better, quizzing yourself repeatedly

21. Encoding Information
Serial Positioning Effect – we tend to remember the first and last items on a list
Primacy Effect – remember items at the beginning of a list
Example: Washington, Adams..
Recency Effect – remembering items at the end of a list (most recent
Example: Obama, Bush…
Rostorff effect – remembering unique items on a list
Example: Lincoln, Kennedy

22. What We Encode…
Encoding Exercise
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture/visual images.
Example – appearance of letters – are they in ALL CAPS, Bolded, In Red
2. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Example: “If the glove doesn’t fit you must acquit”
3. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.
Example: “rambutan” may not mean anything to you – but if you put a meaning to it (a tropical fruit which means “hair” in Malaysian, similar to its physical qualities), you might remember it
Serial Positioning Effects demonstrates the importance of rehearsal.

23. Visual Encoding
Encoding Exercise
Imagery – visual images help us remember concrete words (aided by semantic encoding)
Example: Ipod, process, college, claim
Rosy Retrospection – recalling high points, forgetting the worst
Example: After a trip to Disney World, you remember meeting Mickey, Space Mountain, the turkey leg you ate, but forget the long lines, and the heat

24. Mneumonics
Encoding Exercise
Mnemonic Devices – any memory aid that uses visual images and clever ways of organizing material
EXAMPLES:
Peg word system – memorizing a jingle and using imagery to associate items with the jingle
One is a bun (chicken squashing the bun), two is a shoe (corn filling up shoe)…
Method of Loci – use visual information with familiar objects on a path to recall info on a list
Example: remembering items on a grocery list by associating them with a place in our house (chicken is pecking at front door, corn is smashed in the foyer etc)

25. Mneumonics
Encoding Exercise
3. Hierarchies – broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts
Example: See picture
4. Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units (acronyms)
Example: PORN – Proactive Interference: Old info interferes with New Retroactive Interference: New interferes with Old
Every Good Boy Does Fine
1-800-IBM-HELP

26. Acoustic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Example:
The melody of your favorite song has been encoded into long-term memory

27. Semantic Encoding Semantic Encoding Examples:
Children in Israel, can sing the top rock songs from the United States but they don’t know what the words mean. This is because they are using an acoustic code to remember a song and sing it, but they do not have a semantic code for the meaning of the words.
Self Reference Effect – the tendency to remember information that is “relevant to me” compared to less personally relevant information
Example: I remember the meaning of rambutan because I was in Malaysia and ate them…yum!

28. Comparing Types of Encoding
You’re given the word EXTROVERTED, which of the following is an example of Visual, Acoustic, Semantic Encoding?
The word consists of 10 letters
The word rhymes with perverted
The word written in capitals
The word describes you well
Which would you remember better?
Comparing Types of Encoding

29. Storage Types of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory/Short-term
Iconic
Echoic
Working Memory/Short-term
Long-Term Memory
Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory
Conditioned Memories
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Flashbulb Memories
Prospective memory

30. Sensory Memory Sperling’s memory experiment
Momentary photographic memory
After flashing an image, participants had a momentary mental image of all 9 letters
Iconic memory – photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
A momentary mental image that remains after the image is gone
Example:
A momentary mental image that remains after seeing a phone number flashed on the TV
The afterimage of Twirling a sparkler

31. Sensory Memory
Echoic memory – auditory memory lasting no more than a 3-4 seconds (mind’s echo chamber)
A momentary auditory impression that remains after the sound is gone
Example: a moment after hearing your teacher say something when you weren’t paying, you are able to answer the question “What did I just say?”

32. Working/Short-Term Memory
Duration – Brief (30 sec or less) without active processing
Slightly better for auditory info than visual info
Numbers better than letters
Capacity - Limited
Magic number Seven
5-9 bits of information, ave. = 7
The list of magic sevens
Seven wonders of world
Seven seas
Seven deadly sins
Seven primary colors
Seven musical scale notes
Seven days of the week

33. Types of Long Term Memory
Implicit Memory/Procedural Memory
Conditioned Memories
Explicit Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Flashbulb Memory
Prospective Memory

34. Types of Long-Term Memory

35. Implicit Memories
Implicit/Procedural Memories – without conscious recall
Processed by cerebellum and other brain areas
still intact with anterograde amnesia
Examples:
Bike Riding, Playing an instrument
Conditioned Memories – memories from conditioned learning
Example: Fear

36. Explicit Memories
Explicit Memories – memories of facts and experiences, consciously recalled
Processed by the Hippocampus
Verbal information is stored in the left hippocampus
visual designs are stored in the right hippocampus.
Infantile amnesia – can’t remember events before age 3
Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to develop
Example: Remembering the first President of the U.S.

37. Explicit Memories
Episodic Memories - memories of autobiographical events, situations, and experiences
Example: Remembering you 5th Birthday Party
Semantic Memories – memory of words, meanings, and understandings
Example: Remembering the meaning of vocab from AP Psych

38. Explicit Memories
Flashbulb Memories – clear moment of a emotionally significant event
Facilitated by stress hormones
Prolonged stress however, can inhibit memory formation by shrinking the hippocampus
Amygdala (emotion center of the brain) boosts activity & proteins into memory forming areas of the brain
Example: 9/11
Prospective Memory – remembering to perform a planned action
Example: Remembering to meet your study group for the AP Psych Exam

39. Review Come up with your own example of three of following terms:
Iconic Memory
Echoic Memory
Implicit Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Semantic
Flashbulb
Prospective

40. Storing Memories
Memory trace – memory is distributed across groups of neurons
Long Term-Potentiation – Increases in synaptic firing potential of a neuron by increasing the number of receptors on the receiving neuron.
physical basis for learning and memory .
Neurons that fire together wire together…creating a memory.
Example: Rats given drug that enhances LTP learn a maze with about ½ the normal mistakes
Memory boosting drugs
CREB – proteins that make a cell more likely to keep a memory
Glutamate – enhances synaptic communication (LTP) which strengthens neural connections

41. Amnesia Amnesia – loss of memory
Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember past events
Example
Stroke, accident
“The Vow”
Anterograde Amnesia – inability to create new memories
Loss of Explicit Memory but not Implicit memories
Examples:
Clive wearing
HM (Henry Moliason)
50 1st dates

42. Think Pair Share
Explain where explicit and implicit memories are stored in the brain, and the possible implications of these locations for amnesia victims.

43. Retrieval Recall - you must retrieve the information from your memory
Example: fill-in-the blank or essay tests
Recognition - you must identify the target from possible targets
Example: multiple-choice tests

44. Ways to help you retrieve info
Relearning – learning material for the second time, saves time.
Example: Taking Psych in college should save you time for going to football games
Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access target info for retrieval later
Example: Mnemonics, words, events places , emotions, tastes, smells, that trigger memory
Priming – unconscious activation of associations in memory
Example: See a rabbit and asked to spell hair, you spell hare

45. Context Matters
Context-dependent memory - memory is more easily recalled if you are in the same setting that learning took place
Example: taking your AP exam in the same room and seat you learned the info
Déjà vu – eerie sense that you’ve experienced something before
Example: When I saw the play Billy Elliot I had déjà vu …

46. The Context Matters!!!
Mood Congruent Memory – recalling memories consistent with current mood
Example: When you break up with your girlfriend you think about all the other times you’ve been dumped
State Dependent Memory – learning that takes place in one physiological "state" is generally better remembered later in a similar physiological state
Example: info learned when person is drunk is better recalled when person is drunk

47. Forgetting Encoding Failures Storage Decay Retrieval Failures
Interference

48. Forgetting Schacter’s sevens sins of memory Sins of Forgetting
Absent-mindedness – encoding failure (inattention to detail)
Transience – storage decay
Blocking – inaccessibility to stored info
Sins of distortion
Misattribution – confusing the source
Suggestibility – linger effects of misiformation
Bias – belief colored recollections
Sin of intrusion
Persistence – unwanted memories

49. Encoding Failure
Example – You can’t remember a person’s name that you were just introduced to because you weren’t paying attention
What should you do to prevent an encoding failure?

50. Storage Decay Ebbinghaus Curve
Apply the Ebbinghaus curve to Psych Class

51. Retrieval Failure

52. Retrieval Failures
Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.
Example: Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number.
Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.
Example: Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriends name.
PORN
Positive Transfer – old info helps you learn new info
Example: learning Spanish helps you learn French
Tip of the tongue phenomenon - the feeling that a name, word, or phrase--though momentarily unrecallable--is known and will soon be recalled.

53. Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting – revising past memories
Example: Forgetting how much money I actually spent on Christmas shopping!
Repression – (Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory)
A defense mechanism that banishes painful memories from consciousness to minimize anxiety
Example: Woman with unexplained fear of running water had repressed a memory of almost drowning

54. Constructive Memory
Constructed memory (Loftus) - a created memory, altered when encoded or retrieved.
4 causes
Misinformation effect
Imagination effect
Source amnesia
Suggestibility

55. Constructive Memory
Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading info into a memory
Example:
Suggestibility – incorporating leading questions into memory (misrecalling a yield sign as a stop sign); hypnotically refreshed memories,
Imagination Effect/Inflation – imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories
imagining that Solon beat Mentor, you may create a false memory (:
Source Amnesia – retaining the memory of an event, but not the source
Example: Someone told you that Solon beat Mentor, but you think you read it in the newspaper
Cognitive Interview Technique – witness visualizes scene, then recalls without interruption

56. Lotus Study Results: IV?
The wording of the questions
Op Def?
½ participants will receive question stated as “How fast was Car A going when it ran the stop sign”, ½ will receive “how fast was Car A going when it turned right”
DV?
Answer to question
Op Def
Record the total number of responses that said they saw a stop sign”
Results:
Wording of questions can alter the way we remember an event
Memories are not just replaying events, but rather new information (false presumptions) can be unintentionally integrated into a memory
Repressed memories don’t exist, we tend to remember traumatic memories best

57. Discerning True and False Memories
Memory studies – real vs. false
Real memories have more detail
False memories often feel as real
Hypnotically refreshed - misinformation effect
Eye witness testimony
Constructed memories
Misinformation
Source Amnesia
Suggestability

58. Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s memories of abuse
Suggestibility – susceptibility to suggestion
Children more susceptible than adults to the misinformation effect
Children more credible if adults have not discussed the issue with them prior to an interview
Ask less suggestive and more effective questions to reduce misinformation effect
Use neutral words

59. Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?
Areas of agreement
Sexual abuse happens
Injustice happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are incomplete
Memories before 3 years are unreliable
Hypnotic memories are unreliable
Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Happens more often than we once supposed…infants nervous systems are not fully formed making memory formation during infancy and toddlerhood difficult, if not impossible
Some falsely accused; some evaded
Some abused were either very young or may not have understood meaning of their experience—circumstance under which forgetting is common
Cued by a remark or an experience we recover memories of long forgotten events both pleasant and unpleasant
People do not reliably uncover memories from 1st 3 years
Age regressed hypnotized subjects incorporate suggestions into memories
Emotionally upsetting memories aren’t easily forgotten

60. Improving Memory Techniques
Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know