1. Course Title: General Biology(l) Department of Biology + Chemistry
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Higher Education
Salman bin Abdualaziz University
College of Science and Humanities
Course Code: BIO 2010
Course Title: General Biology(l)
Department of Biology + Chemistry
Dr . Amina AL-Mushhin

2. Lecture (1)
-Definition of Biology Biology(from the Greek words bios = life and logos = science or studying). It research at the science study of living organisms in terms of Beginning structure, function, distribution, adaptation, interactions, and all vital activities, including their interactions with the surrounding environment as well as their relation to humans and the extent to which infer .

3. Life Properties- Despite the difficulty of defining life and determine their characteristics accurately, but the secret of life lies in the protoplasm living material that make up the body cells of the organism . structure which has the capacity to carry out the metabolism of catabolism and anabolism , and the all the requirements of the multiplication of the organism and the continuity and stability. Although the protoplasm consists of organic compounds the most important of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and fats, but it is characterized by life than other organic compounds have a structure and the same qualities, but non-living . Perhaps the most important characteristic of living organisms ability to conduct operations next vital :

4. 1-Nutrition A vital process that enables the organism to obtain the necessary energy to carry out operations other vital . 2-Respiration Vital process by which the energy production of organic food compounds, carbohydrates, fats, proteins and by enzymes destroyed by a specialized body cells contain the object . 3-Growth and Reproduction Constitutes a total growth of the biological processes that lead to increase the size of the organism . The reproduction is increasing the number of organisms.

5. 4- Locomotion
Means the ability of the organism to move from one place to another in the middle which they live and know the movement of virtual movement which is found in the majority of animals . And sometimes exercise some plants of this type of movement as a movement of plants insect-eaters . But this does not mean that the organisms Atmars such as the movement of virtual it lacked this feature, if we look closer under the microscope, we see the movement of organelles that are found in cells of this movement is known as cytoplasmic movement . There is also the movement of blood heart for animals and the movement of food and water in the vessel in plants .

6. 5- Response to the external effector Object responds to external stimuli triggered passionate and this is the direction or moving away from the source and as a result of persistent exposure to this externality arises the so-called adaptation. Over time, produces the so-called evolution.

7. Biological Sciences branches
Ecology Morphology Taxonomy Anatomy Histology Cytology Genetics Embryology
Physiology Animal Behaviour Microbiology Parasitology
Phycology Mycology Virology Entomology Pathology Protozoology Ornithology Vertebrates zoology
Invertebrates zoology Marine biology Animal hormones(Endocrinology) Plant hormones(Auxinology)

8. research at the shape and outer structure of the organism.
Ecology
research the relation of organisms with each other and with the center where you live .
Morphology
research at the shape and outer structure of the organism.
Taxonomy
research in the classification of organisms and arranged in groups to facilitate the study and deal with them.
Anatomy
research at the internal structure of the organism .
Histology
research at the composition and function of tissues of the organism.

9. Cytology
research in the molecular composition of cells and its biological processes.
Genetics
research in the genetic material and genetic traits and how they are transmitted across generations.
Embryology
research in the formation of embryos and the growth of organisms.
Physiology
research at the physiology of the body of the organism.
Animal Behaviour
research at animal behavior in response to external effector.
Microbiology
research in the study of different microorganisms.

10. Parasitology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of parasites and diseases caused by organisms. Phycology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of algae and the extent to which human. Mycology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of fungi and their relation to humans . Virology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of viruses and diseases caused by.

11. Entomology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of insects and their relation to economic and pathological human being. Pathology research at the causes of different diseases, and methods of treatment. Protozoology research at the biological characteristics and environmental of protozoa . Ornithology research in the study of biological characteristics and environmental of birds.

12. Vertebrates zoology
research at the biological characteristics and environmental of vertebrate animals .
Invertebrates zoology
research at the biological characteristics and environmental of invertebrate animals .
Marine biology
research at the biological characteristics and environmental Marine biologist .
Animal hormones(Endocrinology)
research at the biological characteristics of animal hormones .
Plant hormones(Auxinology)
research at the biological characteristics of the plant hormones.

13. Chemical basis of life
1- Organic compounds 2- Inorganic compounds Organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, nucleic acids and hormones All share and to contain the element carbon, which is associated with hydrogen and oxygen Carbohydrates Word means carbohydrate hydrolysis of carbon, which consists of basic elements combine together in a fixed rate is 1:2:1, and thus the general molecular formula for this family is (CH2O)n . Resulting combination of these elements raw materials known monosaccharides which in turn combine together to give disaccharides and polysaccharides Summarized the function of carbohydrates in it are the first source of energy in the cell .

14. Carbohydrates are classified into the following sections :
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides

15. - Monosaccharides Is one of the simplest kinds of sugars and sugar which consists of a certain number of carbon atoms ranging from three, as in the sugar Dihydroxyacetone Or such as four or five such as ribose or six such as glucose, fructose and galactose . the molecular formula C6H12O6 . - Disaccharides They produce for the Union of the two parts of monosaccharides Bakdan accompanied by a water molecule, including maltose and lactose, sucrose, all bearing the molecular formula C12H22O11 .
- Polysaccharides
Produced by the process of farm monosaccharides called polymerization
process after the loss of water molecule, where the resulting complex compounds
in the form of chains such as cellulose and glycogen, starch, and bear the molecular formula( C6H12O6)ⁿ .

16. Composition of disaccharides

17. and saturated fat such as solid fat
1-2 Lipids
Fat consists of three basic elements are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in addition to the element phosphorus, and combine these elements to gether to be the so-called fatty acids
which are of general formula R-COO , Which in turn combine with alcohol to be lipid Quality of which depends
on the number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen in them and so know we have unsaturated fat such as vegetable oils liquid fats
and saturated fat such as solid fat
A fat second source of energy in the cell ,
Also contribute to fat in the vital building materials such as phospholipids components of the membranes And fat is burned in metukondria.

18. Leucine , Lycine , Methionine , Treptophaan
1-3 Proteins
Proteins form the basic structural material of the cells because their function is linked to growth and renewal of tissues and thus interference in the composition of various tissues in the body . as an infrastructure for the installation of some enzymes and hormones necessary for the occurrence of different biochemical reactions in the cell .
The protein is composed of four basic elements are C,N,H,O, . In addition to other secondary elements are P, S, Fe . And the resulting combination of these elements together so-called amino acids which are the basic units of composition and function in proteins .
Amino acids are divided in terms of their importance to the two division basic amino acids such as :
Leucine , Lycine , Methionine , Treptophaan
And non-essential amino acids such as
Glycine, Cysteine , Arginine , Proline .

19. 1- 4 Nucleic acids
There are in nature two types of nucleic acids are (DNA) Deoxyribonucleic acid and (RNA) Ribonucleic acid . DNA is composed of double helix while the RNA consists of a single strand and thus the first (DNA) molecule with a weight than the second (RNA) .
1- 5 Vitamins
Vitamins are classified with the secondary nutrients which are not possess energy are not manufactured in the body, but they affect the metabolism of food and help protect the body from certain diseases.

21. 2- Inorganic compounds
Include inorganic compounds on the chemical elements, including oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen carbon and other chemical elements .
Constitutes the bulk water from the bodies of living organisms and the proportion of water in the human body is between 20% in the bone to 85% in the cells of the brain .
Water and is characterized by physical attributes are very important for the system Dynamic property of cohesion and adhesion and surface tension and Osmotic pressure in addition to high quality temperature . In addition, he is a good solvent for salts and organic compounds Where a compromise of the transfer .
As for the chemical elements where the only item on the definition of material that can not be analyzed into simpler substance by chemical reaction .
It contains a universe of 92 element vary from Lenient hydrogen to uranium heavily addition to the 17 element manufactured possible atomic interactions and thus a total of 109 elements .

22. Cells and Tissues
- Cells : Cell is a unit of the basic structure and function in the body of the organism . Divided cells in general to Prokaryotes and where the internal structures is distinct within its own membranes, including cells of bacteria and blue-green algae . And Eukaryotes, and are distinct internal structures within the membrane of each particular include all types of cells .

23. 1- Cell wall (plant cells only):
Cellular structure:
1- Cell wall (plant cells only):
• Is a wall of protective material consists of cellulose private parts.
• Summarized the functions of the cell wall to protect the cell and give it form the hard. .
2-Cell membrane:
• A cell membrane the outer perimeter of all cells.
• And cell membrane function is to regulate the passage of water inside and outside the cell .
3- Endoplasmic reticulum:
Endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane tube and put a dent in the spread cytoplasm form of a reticulum connected from the outside with the cell membrane and the inside with the nuclear membrane .

24. Endoplasmic reticulum is divided into two :
A- Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum: Do not carry Ribosomes Contribute to the transfer of materials and building of fatty.
B- Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Bear Ribosomes
4- Ribosomes :
• Ribosomes are packets of RNA and protein.
• They are the site of protein synthesis.
5- Golgi apparatus:
Is a device that works on the concentration of cell secretions in the form of granules or drops suitable
for storage within the cell or for export within.
6- Mitochondria:
• Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to work
• Mitochondria have double membrane.
• The outer membrane is fairly smooth.
• But the inner membrane is highly convoluted

25. • Are major organelles found in the cells of plants and algae
7- Plastids:
• Are major organelles found in the cells of plants and algae
• Plastids often contain pigments .used in photosynthesis
• Represents the center of the building in the cell and the production of food compounds
8- Cytplasm :
• Is the basic material protoplasm in prootoblast They are found outside the nucleus and lies there all the cell organelles .
9- Vacuoles :
• Membrane structures in the form of bags and vesicles containing liquid or juice made from organic materials and inorganic But if the contractile vacuole working to get rid of excess waste or food vacuole is working to store food
• Animal cells contain a few very small these vacuoles or Athtwea at all while the plant cells contain a large vacuoles to increase in size increase of cell maturation .

26. • nuclear plasma A transparent liquid and dense textures
10- Nucleus
• Installation of cellular circular shape is the center of the cell nucleus to control various biological activities .
• It is structurally composed the nucleus of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus, nuclear plasma and chromatin reticulum .
• Nuclear membrane is usually double and works to protect the internal parts and peppered with multiple openings to help the passage of materials to and from the nucleus .
Nucleolus is composed of protein and RNA . It is responsible for making t-RNA.
• nuclear plasma A transparent liquid and dense textures
• chromatin reticulum of reticulum filaments of high
• consists of chromatin material of (DNA35%+RNA5%+Protein 60%) .

27. Plant Cell

28. Animal Cell

29. Tissues :- Meristematic Tissues
This tissue is composed of relatively small cells with thin walls and large nuclei and small vacuoles .
The main function of division and growth .
Confined to the production of new cells in certain areas of the plant known of the Apical meristems and that are present in the tops of the roots and stems .

30. Apical meristem in stem
Apical meristem in root

31. Permanent Tissues Permanent Tissues Dermal tissue system - Epidermis
Ground tissue system
- Paranchyma tissue
- Collenchyma tissue
- Sclerenchyma tissue
Vascular
tissue system
- Xylem tissue
phleom tissue-
Permanent Tissues

32. His function the production and storage . - Collenchyma tissue
-Epidermis
is the outer layer of cells of the body in plant Found in leaves, stems and roots .
- Paranchyma tissue
His function the production and storage .
- Collenchyma tissue
His function the mainstay and production .
- Sclerenchyma tissue
His function the only mainstay .
- Xylem tissue
His function the transporting of water and salts and the mainstay of the plant .
phleom tissue
His function the transporting food to various parts of the plant .

33. Main roads of Genetics:
Structure of the gene:
DNA is formed of double helix according to Watson and Kreig model.
Nucleotides are the structural unit of DNA.
Every nucleotide consists of:
1- Deoxyribose sugar
2- Phosphate group
3- Nitrogenous base

34. The nitrogenous bases are of two types:
Purines (Adenine A or Guanine G)
Pyrimidines (Cytosine C, Thyamine T)
Adenine and Thyamine are connected by 2 hydrogen bonds A T
Cytosine and Guanine are connected by 3 hydrogen bonds C G

35. The genetic material (DNA) is found inside the nucleus.
Double helix DNA wrapes around proteins
nucleosomes
Chromosome consists of 2 chromatids
The genetic material (DNA) is found inside the nucleus.
DNA wraps around Protein to form nucleosomes which is the structural unit of chromosomes.

36. Interphase includes 3 stages:
Cell spend most of their lives in interphase.
Interphase includes 3 stages:
1-G1 (Gap 1)
Cell growing
2- S (synthesis)
DNA duplication
3- G2 (Gap2)
Cell growing and preparation of next cellular division.

37. Mitosis The cell undergoes 2 types of divisions 1- Mitosis 2- Meiosis
► Mitosis occurs in somatic cells.
► It leads to the growth of living organisms.
► It involves one nuclear division
► It results in 2 genetically identical daughter cells
► Both daughter cells are diploid (2n)

38. Mitosis includes 4 stages:
1- Prophase
2- Metaphase
3- Anaphase
4- Telophase

39. - Chromosomes condenses and become visible.
1- Prophase:
- Chromosomes condenses and become visible.
- Each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids.
- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappears.
- Spindle fibers extends between the 2 centrioles at the opposite poles of the cell.
Early Prophase
Late Prophase

40. Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
Anaphase:
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
Early Anaphase
Late Anaphase

41. 4- Telophase: - Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform.
- Spindle fibers disappears
- Chromosomes becomes long thin filaments (chromatin)
Daughter Cells
Telophase

42. Plant Mitosis -- Review
Prophase                                                             
Interphase                                                             
Anaphase                                                             
Metaphase                                                             
Telophase                                                             

43. ► Meiosis occurs in sex cells.
► It leads to the production of sexual gametes.
► It involves 2 nuclear division.
(Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2)
► It results in 4 daughter cells
► daughter cells are haploid (n) i.e containing half the number of parent cell.

44. Each meiotic division includes 4 stages:
Meiosis 1
- Prophase 1
- Metaphase1
- Anaphase 1
- Telophase 1
Meiosis 2
- Prophase 2
- Metaphase 2
- Anaphase 2
- Telophase 2

45. Prophase 1
►Chromosomes condense and become visible.
► Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
► Chromosomes forms homologous pairs (tetrads) where synapsis occurs followed by crossing over.
► Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell where spindle fibers extend across the cell.

46. Metaphase 1
Homologous pairs of chromosomes (Tetrads) line up along the equator and attached to the spindle fibers by centromeres.

47. Anaphase 1
Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

48. Telophase 1
- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform.
Spindle fibers disappear.
Cytokinesis occurs.
- Result in 2 daughter cells each containing one of the homologus pairs of chromosomes (haploid n).

49. Prophase 2
►Chromosomes condense and become visible as two chromatids join at centromere.
► Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
► Centrioles move to the opposite poles of the cell to extend spindle fibers across the cell.

50. Chromosomes (2 sister chromatids) line up along the equator.
Metaphase 2
Chromosomes (2 sister chromatids) line up along the equator.
Sister chromatids

51. Anaphase 2
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.

52. Telophase 2
- Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform around the new chromosomes.
- Spindle fibers disappear.
- Cytokinesis occurs.
- Final Result is 4 haploid daughter cells with half the chromosomal number of parent cells.

54. Biodiversity What is biodiversity?
What is biodiversity?
- Biodiversity (or biological diversity) is used to refer to the variability among living organisms.
We mean the differences in plant and animal species, and its associated genetic diversity
and assemblages of organisms. Therefore, the meaning of biodiversity is much more than numbers of plants and animals, it goes beyond that to serve as a pillar of human life.
-Includes biodiversity on :
 genetic diversity
 species diversity
 ecosystem diversity

55. 1-Classification of Viruses (virus) A - DNA viruses
Principles of the division and classification of
viruses -bacteria - algae - plant - animal
1-Classification of Viruses (virus)
A - DNA viruses
Nucleic acid type
Capsid symmetre
Examples
Virus Family ds
Complex
Smallpox virus, Cowpox
virus
Poxviridae
Icosahedral
Hepatitis B virus
Hepadnaviridae
papillom
Papovaviridae

56. Measles virus, Mumps virus
B- RNA viruses
Nucleic acid type
Capsid symmetre
Examples
Virus Family
ss(+)
Icosahedral
Yellow fever virus
Flaviviridae
ss(-)
Helical
Measles virus, Mumps virus
Paramyxoviridae
Rhino virus
Picornaviridae

57. Facultative anaerobic
2- Classification of Bacteria
kingdom Monera (Prokaryotes)
A – Gram negative bacteria
B – Gram positive bacteria
A- Gram-negative bacteria
Family
Genus
Characteristics
Cell Shape
Neisseriaceae
Neisseria , Veilonella
Aerobic
Cocci
Enterobacteriaceae
Shigella,
Salmonella
Facultative anaerobic
Bacilli

58. B- Gram- Positive bacteria
Family
Genus
Characteristics
Cell Shape
Micrococcaceae
staphylococcus
Micrococcus
cells in irregular clusters
Cocci
Bacillaeceae
Bacillus Clostridium
Aerobic Sporing Anaerobic Sporing
Bacilli

59. Shapes Cells bacteria

60. Fungi
- Fungi have distinctive adaptations.
- A typical fungus is a mushroom, which is actually the reproductive part of a more extensive organism.
- Fungi feed off dead material by secreting digestive fluids that break down their food outside of their bodies.

61. - The body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is one-cell thick.
Fungi
- The body of a fungus is called a mycelium and is one-cell thick.
- The mycelium is made up of extensive numbers of filaments called hyphae, which grow across a food source.
(a) Mycelium
(b) Hyphae

62. A proposed phylogenetic
Chytrids
3- Classification
of Fungi
Zygomycetes
(zygote fungi)
Glomeromycetes
(arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi)
Ascomycetes
(sac fungi)
A proposed phylogenetic
tree of fungi
Basidiomycetes
(club fungi)

63. Fungi Fungi affect humans and other organisms.
Fungi play a major role in the destruction of dead plant tissue by being able to digest both lignin and cellulose, the molecules that make up wood.
Fungi are saprophytes (feeding on dead organisms) and consume the dead of all kingdoms.
The activities of fungi and bacteria return nutrients and minerals to the environment.
Antibiotics (such as penicillin, oleandomycin, and cephalosporin) are made from fungi to combat bacterial diseases.

64. Fungi attack plants that are important to people.
Fungi cause the majority of plant diseases, and some of the plants that they infect are important to humans.
Especially damaging are plant pests called rusts and smuts, which cause billions of dollar’s worth of damage to grain crops annually.
Corn smut

65. Fungi
Fungi include parasites that attack humans directly.
Some of these are athlete’s foot, jock itch, vaginal infections, and ringworm.
Fungi can produce toxins.
Molds of the genus Aspergillus produce highly toxic, carcinogenic compounds known as aflatoxins.
Some foods, such as peanuts, seem to be especially susceptible to attack by Aspergillus.

66. 4-Classification of algae
Storage products
Pigments
Chlorophyll
Taxonomic group
Fats , oils, volutin
β-carotene
phycoxanthin
xanthophyll
a,c
Bacillariophyta
Starch, oils
Lycopene
Lutein
a,b
Chlorophycophyta
(green algae)
Fats , oils
Xanthophycophyta
(yellow green algae)
phycocyanin
Cyanophycophyta
(blue green algae)
Laminarin
Mannitol
Phaecophycophyta
(brown algae)
Floridean
starch
oils
phycoerythrin
Rhodophycophyta
(red algae)

67. forms of algae

68. 5-Classification of plant
dicotyledonae
Kingdom plant
Non - vascular plants
Vascular plants
Bryophyte
Spermatophyta
Angiospermmatophyta
Gymnospermmatophyta
monocotyledonae