1. Scientific Method
Chapter 1

2. What is Science?
A Way to Know About Things

3. What Are Terms Associated with Science?
Observations
Objectivity

4. Factors that Affect Observations and Objectivity
1. Assumptions
2. Time
3. Previous Experience

5. Proposing a Hypothesis
Scientific Method
Observation
A paper bag is on a counter - what is in it?
Proposing a Hypothesis
Inside is a sandwich
Test the Hypothesis
Smell, shake, feel
Form a Conclusion
Orange - wrong
Potato - correct
Revise the Hypothesis
Tangerine, candle

6. What is science? Body of knowledge about nature
Product of observations, common sense, rational thinking and (sometimes) brilliant insights
A methodology of exploring nature and discovering the order within it.
Tool for solving problems

7. Why study science? Basic & Applied Research Health Environment
Technology-based economy
Ethical questions
More than 70% of all legislation before Congress addresses science-related questions and issues

8. Chemistry – The Central Science
Is the study of matter and transformations of matter

9. What is Chemistry? Chemists want to understand how the things work.
Why are leaves green?
What happens when water boils?
Why does soda fizz?
Applications in
New Materials
New Pharmaceuticals
New Energy Sources
Food Supplies

10. Chemistry tries to understand the macroscopic world by examining the behavior of atoms and molecules

11. Chemistry is the science that investigates the molecular reasons for the processes occurring in our macroscopic world.
What happens when sugar is added to hot tea?

12. How do chemists come up with these explanations to these processes?
Scientific method

13. Observation A way of acquiring information about nature
Some observations are simple descriptions about the characteristics or behavior of nature
“The soda pop is a liquid with a brown color and a sweet taste. Bubbles are seen floating up through it.”
Some observations compare a characteristic to a standard numerical scale
“A 240 mL serving of soda pop contains 27 grams of sugar.”

14. Hypothesis
A tentative interpretation or explanation of your observations
“the sweet taste of soda pop is due to the presence of sugar”
A good hypothesis is one that can be tested to be proved wrong!
Falsifiable
One test may invalidate your hypothesis

15. Experiments Tests of hypotheses, laws or theories
Can you think of a way to test whether the sweet taste of soda pop is due to the presence of sugar?
Results either Validate (confirm) or Invalidate (deny) your ideas
Invalidate = Discard or Modify
Many times experiments invalidate only parts of the hypothesis or theory, in which case the idea is modified
Validate ≠ Proof your idea will always hold

16. McClintock and Baker notice something unusual in the Antarctic
Observations:
Amphipods carry sea butterflies on their backs.
Amphipods who lost their sea butterfly would quickly find another sea butterfly.
Amphipods carrying sea butterflies move much slower than amphipods without sea butterflies
Question:
If sea butterflies slow down the amphipods thus making them more vulnerable to predators, why do amphipods carry sea butterflies?

17. McClintock and Baker’s Hypothesis
Amphipods carry sea butterflies because the sea butterflies produce a chemical that deters the predator of amphipod.
Experiment
Place predator fish in tanks with a) sea butterflies b) amphipods and c) amphipods & sea butterflies
Could something besides a chemical cause the predator fish to spit out the sea butterflies?

18. A better experiment
Control Tests: Ideally designed so that only one variable changes
Experiment:
Predator fish placed in tanks with a) control pellets (fish meal) and b) pellets containing sea butterfly extract
Scientists confirm experimental results by repeated testing
Results of a scientific experiment are considered valid only if they can be reproduced by other scientists
Molecule found to deter predator fish

19. Scientific Method Observe…using your naked eye or instrument…
People noticed when logs were burned, they lost weight…
Propose an explanation or hypothesis…
People reasoned that the logs must be losing something and named that substance phlogiston.

20. Scientific Method Be skeptical – test that hypothesis!
A French scientist, Lavoisier decided to test the explanation. If substances lose phlogiston when they’re burned, if I burn something else, i.e. phosphorous, they will lose weight.
Test the hypothesis with an experiment.
Lavoisier found that phosphorous gained weight when burned.

21. Scientific Method Revise the hypothesis and test again.
Lavoisier ran more experiments.
Observation: if he burned the phosphorous in a closed container, it weighed the same before and after.
Observation: if he burned the log in a closed container, it also weighed the same before and after.
What’s his new hypothesis?

22. Scientific Method
Make Predictions
Working towards an explanation

23. Law – A summary of observations
A law combines all past observations into one general statement
Law of Conservation of Mass – “In a chemical reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.”
Law is not an explanation.
Allows you to predict future observations
So you can test the Law with experiments

24. Working towards an explanation…
More experiments…
with phosphorous and with mercury…
Observations:
Balloon deflated
the ash weighed more than the phosphorous or mercury.

25. Theory – an explanation of molecular behavior
Can be used to predict future observations
So they can be tested by experiments
Lavoisier’s theory:
Phosphorous is combining with the oxygen in the air.
Mercury is combining with the oxygen in the air.
How did he know there was oxygen in the air?
Communication – he read the reports of Priestly and Scheele who discovered oxygen.

26. Research involves communication
When scientists have ideas they look to the literature to see if anyone else had the same idea or similar ideas.
Publishing results allows other scientists to confirm the reproducibility of the results
And occasionally, people arrive at the same idea independently…
that’s why scientists write down their observations in pen and date their lab work.
There can be disputes about who came up with an idea 1st. The decision on who gets credit or the profit from the idea is sometimes made by looking at the lab notes as documentation of the idea.

27. Where can you find chemical information? And how accurate will it be?
Level 1 - Specialists
Primary source journals that describe research results.
Examples:
Analytical Chemistry
Journal of Organic Chemistry
Electrochemical ACTA
Level 2 – Some background in science
General science magazines that contain articles often written by specialists
Scientific American
Popular Mechanics
Science News
Discover
Level 3 – General public
Magazines or newspapers that have some science writers on their staff
National Geographic
The New York Times
The Los Angeles Times
Level 4 – General public
TV and local newspapers. Information is severely diluted.
KRON 4 news
The Oakland Tribune
The Santa Clara
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28. Science has limitations
No experiment can ever prove definitely that a scientific hypothesis is correct.
We gain more and more confidence in a hypothesis (theory) as it continues to be supported by the results of many different experiments conducted by many different investigators.
If an experimental result contradicts the hypothesis and the result is reproducible, the hypothesis must be discarded or revised.

29. Science only deals with hypotheses that are testable
Science is restricted to the natural world.
Cannot answer philosophical or religious questions, such “What is the purpose of life”
“What is the nature of the human spirit?”
Which statement is a scientific hypothesis?
The moon is made of Swiss cheese.
Human consciousness arises from an essence that is undetectable.
Tides are caused by the moon
You were Abraham Lincoln in a past life.

30. Solving Problems Using a Scientific Approach
Define the Problem
Design Experiments
Gather Information
Facts
Observations
Propose Solutions
Organize Information and look for Patterns
Hypotheses
Evaluate your Proposed Solutions
Plan future work
Test your patterns by using them to predict what will happen
Check for reproducibility
Communication your findings
Publish your results 5

31. A chemist in an imaginary universe does an experiment that attempts to correlate the size of an atom with its chemical reactivity.
What is the purpose of this experiment?
What does the chemist need to observe/measure?

32. Observations: when A, B or C reacts with 1…
Size of Atom
Chemical Reactivity
Small
Low
Medium
Intermediate
Large
High
Can you formulate a law from this data?
Can you propose a theory to explain the law? C 1 B A