1. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Behavioral Assessment: Initial Considerations Chapter 20

2. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Behavioral Assessment Collection and analysis of data to: –Identify and describe target behavior –Identify causes –Select treatment strategy –Evaluate treatment outcome

3. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Program Phases 1.Screening or intake 2.Baseline 3.Treatment 4.Follow-up

4. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Screening or Intake Phase Basic information Appropriate agency? Inform about rules Screen for crisis Which behavior to focus on?

5. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2. Baseline Phase Level of target behavior prior to intervention

6. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3. Treatment Phase Design program –Education – training or teaching program –Clinical – intervention strategy or therapy program Apply program Measure behavior

7. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4. Follow-up Phase Are improvements maintained? Focus on persistence of behavioral change

8. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Measuring Baseline Indirect Assessment –Interviews with clients and significant others –Questionnaires –Role playing –Information from consulting professionals –Client self-monitoring Direct Assessment –Direct observation Computer-assisted Data Collection

9. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Direct Behavioral Assessment: What to Record and How Chapter 21

10. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Overview Characteristics of behavior to assess Methods of assessment Ensuring accuracy

11. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Direct Assessment Behaviors directly observed Advantage: –More accurate than indirect assessment Disadvantages: –Time consuming –Observers need to be trained –Cannot monitor covert behaviors

12. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Characteristics to Consider 1.Topography 2.Amount 3.Intensity 4.Stimulus control 5.Latency 6.Quality

13. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Topography The form of a particular response –Physical appearance or movement involved with the response Can use various methods to help visualize and record

14. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 2. Amount Measured by frequency and duration Frequency –Number of instances a behavior occurs in a given period of time –Synonym: rate Duration –How long a behavior lasts –Relative duration Length of time a behavior occurs within some period

15. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Graphs Frequency Graph –Each data point represents total number of instances of behavior in each period of time Cumulative Graph –Each data point represents a total number of responses up to that point

16. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 21-4 – A frequency graph (A) and a cumulative graph (B) of the same data. “A frequency graph of the happiness indicators displayed by one of the participants in the three conditions is shown in Figure 21-4A. Now look at Figure 21-4B.” (page 257)

17. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 3. Intensity Force of a response Use various devices to measure force –Loudness of speech (measured in decibels) –Strength of grip (measured by grip meter)

18. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 4. Stimulus Control Behavior occurs in the presence of certain stimuli and not others High correlation between occurrence of stimulus and response

19. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 5. Latency Amount of time between stimulus and response –How long before you respond –EX: Alarm clock –EX: Starting gun

20. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 6. Quality How well an activity is performed –Arbitrary designation of one or more of characteristics of behavior EX: good singing EX: good handwriting

21. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Recording Behavior 1.Continuous recording –Recording every instance in a specified time segment 2.Interval recording –Specify block of time –Divide time into equal short intervals –Does behavior occur or not during interval? –Partial-interval recording  – Most frequently used  – Behavior recorded a maximum of once during interval –Whole-interval recording – Only record if occurs over entire interval

22. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Recording Behavior 3.Time-sampling recording –Interval recording –Intervals are separated by longer periods of time (and time often used for recording) 4.Momentary time sampling –Record if behavior occurs at specific points in time –For example: check once per hour, once every 30 min., etc.

23. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 21-7 – A momentary time-sampling data sheet for recording behavior of a child who frequently sits and rocks. “An example of a data sheet for time sampling appears in Figure 21-7.” (page 264)

24. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 21-2 – Summary of Types of Recording Strategies. “For a summary of the recording strategies just discussed, see Table 21-2.” (page 264)

25. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Accuracy of Observations Sources of Error –Response definition too vague or unclear –Observational situation makes observations difficult –Poor training of observer –Poorly designed data sheets Interobserver reliability (IOR) –Do ratings of different observers agree?

26. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 21-6 – Sample data sheet for interval recording. For each behavior, if an instance occurs once during a 10-second interval, a tally is made on the data sheet (for a sample data sheet, see Figure 21-6). (page 263) Sample data sheet for interval recording and measuring interobserver reliability (IOR)

27. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Doing Research in Behavior Modification Chapter 22

28. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Introduction Phases of Behavior Modification Program: –Screening phase Clarifying the problem and determining who should treat it –Baseline phase Determining the initial level of the behavior –Treatment phase Intervention strategy is initiated –Follow-up phase Evaluating the persistence of desirable behavioral changes after the termination of the program A behavior modification research project attempts to demonstrate convincingly that it is the treatment, rather than some uncontrolled variables, that was responsible for the change in the behavior in question.

29. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Reversal-Replication (ABAB) Research Designs Baseline (A) is followed by treatment (B), return to baseline (A), and then treatment again (B) Allows for replication of treatment effect Replication makes it clearer that treatment caused change in behavior

30. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Reversal-Replication (ABAB) Research Design Figure 22-1 – Hypothetical data showing a reversal-replication (ABAB) design for Kelly. “Suppose that the hypothetical results of this manipulation by the teacher are those shown in Figure 22-1.” (page 270)

31. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Reversal-Replication (ABAB) Research Design Considerations –How long should the baseline phase last? Until a stable pattern or trend opposite that is expected from treatment can be seen Shorter baselines in studies of behavior previously researched Availability of time may shorten baseline time Ethical considerations –Some behaviors are dangerous, and it may be unethical to leave them untreated for long periods of time –How many reversals and replications are necessary? Fewer replications are required if large effects are observed and a lot of previous research exists in the area Limitations –Withdrawal of treatment may not lead to return to baseline –Withdrawal may be undesirable or unethical

32. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How Long Should the Baseline Phase Last? Figure 22-2 – Hypothetical data for five children. “How long should the baseline phase last? The difficulties of answering this question might be appreciated best by viewing Figure 22-2.” (page 271)

33. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Multiple Baseline Designs Conduct more than one AB design concurrently with treatments beginning at different times Useful when reversals cannot be done See next slide for more…

34. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Multiple Baseline Designs Across behaviors –Baselining several similar behaviors within an individual (see next slide for example) Across subjects –Applying the same treatment to the same behavior problems of two or more individuals Across situations –Baselining one type of behavior for a single individual in more than one setting

35. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Multiple Baseline Design Across Behaviors Figure 22-3 – Hypothetical data illustrating a multiple-baseline-across- behaviors design for Kelly. “The resulting baselines might have been those shown in Figure 22-3.” (page 273)

36. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Changing-Criterion Designs Change the criterion for success over time and look for a relationship between criteria changes and behavior change Can increase or decrease: –Frequency requirements –Rate requirements –Duration requirements –Etc.

37. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Changing-Criterion Design Figure 22-4 – Mean number of revolutions per minute pedaled on a stationary bicycle by a boy. “To further demonstrate the experimental control of the reinforcement program, as indicated in Figure 22-4, a reversal to baseline phase was included in.…” (page 276)

38. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Alternating-Treatment Designs Compare the effects of two or more treatment conditions considerably more rapidly than in ABAB design –Applied at alternating times within the same time period –Also known as multielement design Does not require reversal Several treatments can be evaluated at the same time Disadvantage: treatment interactions

39. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Data Analysis and Interpretation Data are typically analyzed without control groups and statistical techniques used in other areas of psychology Behavior modifiers are interested in understanding and improving the behavior of individuals, not groups

40. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Data Analysis and Interpretation Evaluate treatments on two basic criteria: –Scientific Guidelines used by a researcher to evaluate whether or not there has been a convincing demonstration that the treatment was responsible for the changes Judgment made by visually inspecting the graph of the results. –Practical Changes to client, other significant individuals in client’s life, and society in general

41. Guidelines for inspecting data The greater the number of times that results are replicated The fewer the overlapping points between baseline and treatment phases The sooner the effect is observed following the introduction of treatment The larger the effect is in comparison to baseline The more precisely the treatment procedures are specified The more reliable the response measures The more consistent the findings are with the existing data and accepted behavioral theory Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

42. Data Analysis and Interpretation Social Validity –Behavior modifiers need to socially validate their work on at least three levels (Wolf, 1978): Must examine the extent to which target behaviors identified for treatment programs are really the most important for client and society Must be concerned with the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used Must ensure that the consumers are satisfied with the results

43. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Treatment Program Chapter 24

44. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. A Problem Has Been Referred: Should You Design a Program? Questions to answer: –Was the problem referred primarily for the benefit of the client? –Can the problem and the goal be specified such that you are dealing with a specific behavior or set of behaviors that can be counted, timed, or measured in some way? –Is the problem important to the client or to others? –Have you eliminated the possibility that there are complications involved in this problem that would necessitate referring it to another specialist? –Is the problem one that would appear to be easily manageable?

45. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. A Problem Has Been Referred: Should You Design a Program? (continued) –If the goal is reached, might it be easily generalized and maintained? –Can you identify significant individuals in the client’s natural environment who might help to record observations and manage controlling stimuli and reinforcers? –If there are individuals who might hinder the program, can you identify ways of minimizing their potential interference? –On the basis of your tentative answers to these eight questions, do your training qualifications, daily schedule, and available time seem adequate for you to participate in the program?

46. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Selecting and Implementing an Assessment Procedure For reliable baselining, define the problem in precise behavioral terms. Select an appropriate baselining procedure that will enable you to: –Monitor the problem behavior –Identify its current stimulus control –Identify the maintaining consequences of the problem behavior –Monitor relevant medical/health/personal variables –Identify an alternative desirable behavior Design recording procedures that will enable you to log the amount of time devoted to the project by the professionals working on it. Ensure that the observers have received appropriate training in identifying critical aspects of the behavior, applying the recording procedures, and graphing data. If the baseline is likely to be prolonged, select a procedure for increasing and maintaining the strength of the record-keeping behavior of the data recorders. Select a procedure for ensuring the reliability of the baseline observations. After beginning to collect baseline data, analyze the data carefully to select an appropriate intervention strategy and decide when to terminate the baseline phase and begin intervention.

47. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Considerations for Assessment Procedures What daily times can the mediator(s) schedule this project? Will others in the situation help or hinder your data collection? Will the surroundings help or hinder your assessment? What is the frequency of the existing behavior? How rapidly should the behavior change?

48. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Program Design and Implementation 1.Define the goal, identify the target behaviors and their desired amount and stimulus control. 2.Identify individuals who might help to manage controlling stimuli and reinforcers. Also identify those who might hinder the program. 3.Examine the possibility of capitalizing on antecedent control. Can you use: –Rules? –Goal setting? –Modeling? –Physical guidance? –Situational inducement? –Motivating operations? 4.If you are developing a new behavior, will you use shaping, fading, or chaining? What motivation establishing operation will you use?

49. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Program Design and Implementation 5.If you are changing the stimulus control of an existing behavior, can you select the controlling S D s such that they: –Are different from other stimuli on more than one dimension? –Are encountered mainly in situations in which the desired stimulus control should occur? –Evoke attending behavior? –Do not evoke undesirable behavior?

50. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Program Design and Implementation 6.If you are decreasing behavioral excess: –Can you remove S D s from the problem behavior? –Can you withhold reinforcers that are maintaining the problem behavior, or present motivation abolishing operations for those reinforcers? –Can you apply DRL? –Can you apply DRO, DRI, or DRA? –Should punishment be used? 7.Specify the details of the reinforcement system: –How will reinforcers be selected? –What reinforcers will be used? –How will reinforcer effectiveness be continually monitored, and by whom? –How will reinforcers be stored and dispensed, and by whom? –If a token system is used, what are the details of its implementation?

51. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Program Design and Implementation 8.Specify the training setting. 9.Describe how you will program generality of behavior change by: –Programming stimulus generalization. Can you: Train in the test situation? Vary the training conditions? Program common stimuli? Train sufficient stimulus exemplars? Establish a stimulus equivalence class? –Programming response generalization. Can you: Train sufficient exemplars? Vary the acceptable responses during training? Use behavioral momentum to increase low probability responses within a response class? –Programming behavior maintenance. Can you: Use natural contingencies of reinforcement? Train people in the natural environment? Use schedules of reinforcement in the training environment? Give the control to the individual?

52. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for Program Design and Implementation 10.Specify the details of the daily recording and graphing procedures. 11.Collect the necessary materials. 12.Make checklists of rules and responsibilities for all participants in the program. 13.Specify the dates for data and program reviews and identify those who will attend. 14.Identify some contingencies that will reinforce the behavior modifiers and mediator. 15.Review the potential cost of the program as designed and judge its merit against cost; reprogram as necessary. 16.Sign a behavioral contract. 17.Implement the program.

53. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Program Maintenance and Evaluation 1.Monitor your data to determine whether the recorded behaviors are changing in the desired direction. 2.Consult the people who must deal with the behavior, and determine whether they are satisfied with the progress. 3.Consult other sources to determine if your results are reasonable in terms of the amount of behavior change during the period the program has been in effect. 4.If 1, 2, 3 are satisfactory, proceed to step 8. 5.If 1, 2, 3 are unsatisfactory, answer the following questions: –Have the reinforcers that are being used lost their appeal? –Are competing responses being reinforced? –Are the procedures being applied incorrectly? –Is there outside interference that is disrupting the program? –Are there any subjective variables that might be adversely affecting the program? 6.If none of the answers to questions are yes, check if additional programming steps need to be added or removed. 7.If the results are now satisfactory, proceed to guideline 8; otherwise consult with a colleague, or consider changing a major aspect of program, or redoing functional analysis.

54. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Program Maintenance and Evaluation 8.Decide how you will provide appropriate program maintenance until the behavioral objective is reached. 9.Following attainment of the behavioral goal, outline an appropriate arrangement for assessing performance during follow-up observations and assessing social validity. 10.After successful follow-up observations have been obtained, determine the costs for the behavioral changes that occurred. 11.Where possible and appropriate, analyze your data and communicate your procedures and results to other behavior modifiers and interested professionals.