1. An Overview of the Financial System
Chapter 2
An Overview of the Financial System

2. Function of Financial Markets
Financial markets (bond and stock markets) and financial intermediaries (banks, insurance companies, pension funds) have the basic function of getting people together by moving funds from those who have a surplus of funds to those who have a shortage of funds.
Financial markets perform the essential function of channeling funds from those who have surplus funds to those that have a shortage of funds.

3. Function of Financial Markets
Financial markets allow funds to move from people who lack productive investment opportunities to people who have such opportunities, which contributes to higher production and promotes efficiency by producing an efficient allocation of capital.
Financial markets improve the well-being of consumers by allowing them to time purchases better.
This function is shown in Figure 1.

4. Figure 1

5. Function of Financial Markets
In indirect finance, borrowers borrow funds from financial intermediaries (mainly banks).
In direct finance, borrowers borrow funds directly from lenders in financial markets by selling them securities (claims on the borrower’s future income or assets).
Securities are assets for the person who buys them but liabilities (IOUs or debts) for the individual or firm that sells them.

6. Structure of Financial Markets
A: Debt and Equity Markets:
A firm or an individual can obtain funds in a financial market in two ways:
issue a debt instrument, such as a bond or a mortgage (a contractual agreement by the borrower to pay the holder fixed amounts at regular intervals until maturity). A debt instrument is:
short-term if maturity is less than a year.
long-term if maturity is ten years or longer.
intermediate-term if maturity between one and ten

7. Structure of Financial Markets
The second method of raising funds is by issuing equities (claims to share in the net income and the assets of a business).
Equities often make periodic payments (dividends) to their holders.
Equities are considered long-term securities because they have no maturity date.
Differences between equities and bonds
Bonds pay fixed income (interest), equities pay variable return (sometimes incur a loss).
Equity holder owns a portion of the firm, bond holder is just a debtor to the firm.

8. Structure of Financial Markets
Equity holder has the right to vote on important issues to the firm and to elect its directors, bond holder does not.
equity holder is a residual claimant on the corporation’s assets, bond holder is a primary claimant (the corporation must pay debt holders before it pays its equity holders).
equity holders benefit directly from any increases in the corporation’s profitability or asset value, debt holders do not share in this benefit.

9. Structure of Financial Markets
B: Primary and Secondary Markets
A primary market is a financial market in which new issues of a security, such as a bond or a stock, are sold to initial buyers by the corporation or government borrowing the funds.
A secondary market is a market in which securities that have been previously issued (and are thus secondhand) can be resold.
An important financial institution that assists in the initial sale of securities in the primary market is the investment bank, which is underwriting securities, i.e., guarantees a price for the securities and then sells them to the public.

10. Structure of Financial Markets
Examples of secondary markets are the NYSE and NASDAQ. Other examples of secondary markets are foreign exchange markets, futures markets, and options markets.
Securities brokers and dealers are crucial to a well-functioning secondary market. Brokers match buyers with sellers of securities; dealers link buyers and sellers by buying and selling securities at stated prices.

11. Structure of Financial Markets
Secondary markets serve two important functions:
First, they make it easier and quicker to sell (second hand) financial instruments to raise cash; that is, they make the financial instruments more liquid.
Second, they determine the price of the security that the issuing firm sells in the primary market.
Conditions in the secondary market are therefore the most relevant to corporations issuing securities.

12. Structure of Financial Markets
C: Exchanges and Over-the-Counter Markets
Secondary markets can be organized in two ways:
Exchanges, where buyers and sellers of securities meet in one central location to conduct trades. The NYSE for stocks and the Chicago Board of Trade for commodities (wheat, corn, silver, and other raw materials) are examples of organized exchanges.
Over-the-counter (OTC), in which dealers at different locations stand ready to buy and sell securities “over the counter” to anyone who is willing to accept their prices.

13. Structure of Financial Markets
Over-the-counter dealers are in computer contact and know the prices set by one another, the OTC market is very competitive and not very different from a market with an organized exchange.
Other over-the-counter markets include those that trade other types of financial instruments such as negotiable certificates of deposit, federal funds, banker’s acceptances, and foreign exchange

14. Structure of Financial Markets
D: Money and Capital Markets
The money market is a financial market in which only short-term debt instruments (generally of less than one year) are traded.
The capital market is the market in which longer-term debt (generally of one year or greater) and equity instruments are traded.
Money market securities are usually more widely traded and so tend to be more liquid. They also have smaller fluctuations in prices than long-term securities, making them safer investments.

15. Internationalization of Financial Markets
Corporations raise funds in local or in foreign markets. Internationalization of financial markets has been the result of both large increases in the pool of savings and the deregulation of foreign financial markets. Instruments include:
Foreign bonds. sold in a foreign country and are denominated in that country’s currency, if the German Porsche sells a bond in the United States denominated in U.S. dollars.
The Eurobond, a bond denominated in a currency other than that of the country in which it is sold, for example, a bond denominated in U.S. dollars sold in London.

16. Internationalization of Financial Markets
A variant of the Eurobond is Eurocurrencies, which are foreign currencies deposited in banks outside the home country.
The most important of the Eurocurrencies are Eurodollars, which are U.S. dollars deposited in foreign banks outside the United States or in foreign branches of U.S. banks.

17. Internationalization of Financial Markets
World Stock Markets
Foreign stock markets have been growing in importance. In the mid-1980s, the value of stocks traded in Japan at times exceeded the value of stocks traded in the United States.
investors now pay attention not only to the Dow Jones Industrial Average but also to stock price indexes for foreign stock markets such as the Nikkei 225 Average (Tokyo) and the Financial Times–Stock Exchange 100-Share Index (London).

18. Function of Financial Intermediaries
Lower transaction costs (time and money spent in carrying out financial transactions). Financial intermediaries can reduce transaction costs because they:
Have developed expertise in lowering them;
Their large size allows them to take advantage of economies of scale: the reduction in transaction costs per dollar of transactions as the size (scale) of transactions increases.
Low transaction costs mean that A financial intermediary can provide its customers with liquidity services, services that make it easier for customers to conduct transactions.

19. Function of Financial Intermediaries
Reduce the exposure of investors to risk.
Financial intermediaries do this through the risk sharing: they create and sell assets with risk characteristics that people are comfortable with, and then use the funds to purchase other assets that may have far more risk. This process of risk sharing is also sometimes referred to as asset transformation, turning risky assets into safer assets for investors.
Financial intermediaries also promote risk sharing by helping individuals to diversify and thereby lower the amount of risk to which they are exposed. Diversification entails investing in a collection (portfolio) of assets whose returns do not always move together, with the result that overall risk is lower than for individual assets.

20. Function of Financial Intermediaries
alleviate Asymmetric Information: Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard.
asymmetric information: the situation where one party (lender) often does not know enough about the other party (borrower) to make accurate decisions.
Adverse selection: is the problem created by asymmetric information before the transaction occurs. Occurs when the potential borrowers who are the likely to produce an undesirable (adverse) results are the ones who most actively seek out a loan and are thus most likely to be selected.

21. Function of Financial Intermediaries
Adverse selection makes it more likely that loans might be made to bad credit risks, lenders may decide not to make any loans even though there are good credit risks.
Moral hazard: is the problem created by asymmetric information after the transaction occurs. It is the risk (hazard) that the borrower might engage in activities that are undesirable (immoral) from the lender’s point of view, make it less likely that the loan will be paid back.
Because moral hazard, lenders may decide that they would rather not make a loan.

22. Function of Financial Intermediaries
Dealing with asymmetric information problems
(before the transaction) Adverse Selection: try to avoid selecting the risky borrower.
Gather information about potential borrower.
(after the transaction) Moral Hazard: ensure borrower will not engage in activities that will prevent him/her to repay the loan.
Sign a contract with restrictive covenants.

23. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
A. Depository Institutions: financial intermediaries that accept deposits from individuals and institutions and make loans. These include commercial banks and thrift institutions (thrifts): savings and loan associations, mutual savings banks, and credit unions.
Commercial Banks.
raise funds primarily by issuing checkable deposits, savings deposits, and time deposits.
They use these funds to make commercial, consumer, and mortgage loans and to buy government securities and municipal bonds.

24. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Savings and Loan Associations (S&Ls) and Mutual Savings Banks.
obtain funds primarily through savings deposits (often called shares) and time and checkable deposits. mostly made mortgage loans for residential housing.
Restrictions on these institutions have been loosened and these intermediaries have become more like commercial banks and are now more competitive with each other.

25. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Credit Unions. very small cooperative lending institutions organized around a particular group: e.g., union members.
They acquire funds from deposits called shares
primarily make consumer loans.

26. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
B. Contractual Savings Institutions: acquire funds at periodic intervals on a contractual basis.
they can predict with reasonable accuracy how much they will have to pay out in benefits in the coming years.
The liquidity of assets is not as important a consideration for them as it is for depository institutions
They tend to invest their funds primarily in long-term securities such as corporate bonds, stocks, and mortgages.

27. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
1. Life Insurance Companies. insure people against financial hazards following a death and sell annuities (annual income payments upon retirement).
They acquire funds from the premiums that people pay to keep their policies in force.
Use funds mainly to buy corporate bonds and mortgages. They also purchase stocks, but are restricted in the amount that they can hold.

28. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Fire and Casualty Insurance Companies. Insure against loss from theft, fire, and accidents.
They receive funds through premiums for their policies.
They have a greater possibility of loss of funds if major disasters occur. For this reason, they use their funds to buy more liquid assets than life insurance companies do.

29. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Pension Funds and Government Retirement Funds. provide retirement income in the form of annuities to employees who are covered by a pension plan.
Funds are acquired by contributions from employers or from employees.
The largest asset holdings are corporate bonds and stocks.

30. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
C. Investment Intermediaries
Finance Companies.
Raise funds by selling commercial paper (a short-term debt instrument) and by issuing stocks and bonds.
Lend these funds to consumers, who make purchases of such items as furniture, automobiles, and home improvements, and to small businesses.

31. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Mutual Funds.
Acquire funds by selling shares to individuals. Use the proceeds to purchase diversified portfolios of stocks and bonds. Mutual funds allow shareholders:
To pool their resources and lower transaction costs when buying large blocks of stocks or bonds.
To hold more diversified portfolios than they otherwise would.
Shareholders can redeem shares at any time, at the market value of these shares. Because these fluctuate greatly, investments in mutual funds can be risky.

32. Types of Financial Intermediaries:
Money Market Mutual Funds.
These have the characteristics of a mutual fund but also function to some extent as a depository institution.
They sell shares to acquire funds that are then used to buy money market instruments that are both safe and very liquid.
Shareholders can write checks against the value of their shareholdings. This makes the shares like checking account deposits that pay interest.

33. Regulation of the Financial System
Increasing Information Available to Investors
Government regulation can reduce adverse selection and moral hazard problems in financial markets and increase their efficiency by increasing the amount of information available to investors.
This requires corporations issuing securities to disclose certain information about their sales, assets, and earnings to the public and restricts trading by the largest stockholders (known as insiders) in the corporation.

34. Regulation of the Financial System
Ensuring the Soundness of Financial Intermediaries
Asymmetric information can also lead a financial panic. To protect the public and the economy from financial panics, the government has implemented six types of regulations.
Restrictions on Entry. regulations will govern who is allowed to set up a financial intermediary. Owners of financial institutions must obtain a charter from the government. Charters are provided Only to those who are with impeccable credentials and a large amount of initial funds.

35. Regulation of the Financial System
Disclosure. Bookkeeping must follow certain strict principles, their books are subject to periodic inspection, and they must make certain information available to the public.
Restrictions on Assets and Activities. There are restrictions on what financial intermediaries are allowed to do and what assets they can hold, and also a financial intermediary is forbidden from engaging in certain risky activities. Another way is to restrict financial intermediaries from holding certain risky assets, e.g., banks are forbidden from holding common stocks.

36. Regulation of the Financial System
Deposit Insurance. The most important government agency that provides this type of insurance is the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insures each depositor at a commercial bank or mutual savings bank up to a loss of $100,000 per account.

37. Regulation of the Financial System
Limits on Competition. unbridled competition promotes failures that will harm the public. First are the restrictions on the opening of additional locations (branches). In the past, banks were not allowed to open up branches in other states, and in some states, banks were restricted from opening additional locations

38. Regulation of the Financial System
Restrictions on Interest Rates. Impose restrictions on interest rates that can be paid on deposits. These regulations were instituted because of the widespread belief that unrestricted interest-rate competition helped encourage bank failures during the Great Depression.

39. APPENDIX: MONEY AND CAPITAL MARKET INSTRUMENTS

40. Money Market Instruments
Treasury Bills. These short-term debt instruments of the government are issued in 3-, 6-, and 12-month maturities to finance the federal government.
They pay a set amount at maturity and have no interest payments, but they effectively pay interest by initially selling at a discount, that is, at a price lower than the set amount paid at maturity.
U.S. Treasury bills are the most liquid of all the money market instruments, because they are the most actively traded.
Treasury bills are held mainly by banks.

41. Money Market Instruments
Negotiable Bank Certificates of Deposit. A CD is a debt instrument, sold by a bank to depositors, that pays annual interest of a given amount and at maturity, pays back the original purchase price. They are negotiable if they could be sold to someone else and could not be redeemed from the bank before maturity without paying a substantial penalty.

42. Money Market Instruments
Commercial Paper. is a short-term debt instrument issued by large banks and well-known corporations, such as General Motors and AT&T. Before the 1960s, corporations usually borrowed their short-term funds from banks, but since then they have come to rely more heavily on selling commercial paper to other financial intermediaries and corporations for their immediate borrowing needs; in other words, they engage in direct finance.

43. Regulation of the Financial System
Banker’s Acceptances. A banker’s acceptance is a bank draft (promise) issued by a firm, payable at some future date, and guaranteed for a fee by the bank. The firm issuing the instrument is required to deposit the required funds into its account to cover the draft.
The advantage to the firm is that the draft is more likely to be accepted when purchasing goods abroad, because the foreign exporter knows that even if the company purchasing the goods goes bankrupt, the bank draft will still be paid off.
These “accepted” drafts are often resold in a secondary market.

44. Money Market Instruments
Repurchase Agreements (repos). short-term loans (usually with a maturity of less than two weeks) in which Treasury bills serve as collateral, an asset that the lender receives if the borrower does not pay back the loan.

45. Money Market Instruments
Federal (Fed) Funds. Typically overnight loans between banks of their deposits at the Federal Reserve.
One reason why a bank might borrow in the federal funds market is that it might find it does not have enough deposits at the Fed to meet the amount required by the Fed. It can then borrow these deposits from another bank, which transfers them to the borrowing bank using the Fed’s wire transfer system.

46. Money Market Instruments
The interest rate on these loans, called the federal funds rate, is a closely watched barometer of the tightness of credit market conditions in the banking system and the stance of monetary policy; when it is high, it indicates that the banks are strapped for funds, whereas when it is low, banks’ credit needs are low.

47. Capital Market Instruments
Stocks. Equity claims on the net income and assets of a corporation. The amount of new stock issues in any given year is typically quite small—less than 1% of the total value of shares outstanding.
Individuals hold around half of the value of stocks; the rest are held by pension funds, mutual funds, and insurance companies.

48. Money Market Instruments
Mortgages. Mortgages are loans to households or firms to purchase housing, land, or
other real structures.
The mortgage market is the largest debt market in the United States.
Savings and loan associations and mutual savings banks have been the primary lenders in the residential mortgage market, although commercial banks have started to enter this market more aggressively.

49. Money Market Instruments
Corporate Bonds. These are long-term bonds issued by corporations with very strong credit ratings. The typical corporate bond sends the holder an interest payment twice a year and pays off the face value when bond matures.
Some corporate bonds, called convertible bonds, have the additional feature of allowing the holder to convert them into a specified number of shares of stock at any time up to the maturity date.
both convertible and nonconvertible bonds for any given corporation is small, they are not as liquid as other securities such as U.S. government bonds.

50. Money Market Instruments
Government Securities. Long-term debt instruments are issued by the Treasury to finance the deficits of the government.
Government Agency Securities. Long-term bonds issued by various government Agencies. They function much like government bonds and are held by similar parties.
State and Local Government Bonds. Municipal bonds, debt instruments issued by state and local governments to finance expenditures on schools, roads, and other large programs.

51. Money Market Instruments
Consumer and Bank Commercial Loans. Loans to consumers and businesses made principally by banks, but—in the case of consumer loans—also by finance companies.
There are often no secondary markets in these loans, which makes them the least liquid of the capital market instruments.

52. Table 1 Principal Money Market Instruments

53. Table 2 Principal Capital Market Instruments

54. Table 3 Primary Assets and Liabilities of Financial Intermediaries

55. Table 4 Principal Financial Intermediaries and Value of Their Assets

56. Table 5 Principal Regulatory Agencies of the U.S. Financial System