1. Responding to the smoke that calls Exploring the causes of collective violence and how these can be addressed at a community level Monica Bandeira

2. Building on the report: The smoke that calls: Insurgent citizenship, collective violence and the struggle for a place in the new South Africa” written by the CSVR and the Society, Work and Development Institute (of the University of the Witwatersrand) This report focused on exploring ways of intervening at a community-level to prevent collective violence Each case study was analysed in terms of root, proximate, and immediate (accelerating and decelerating) causes of collective violence (adapted from the model developed by Schmid and Sirseloudi) Common themes across the different case studies were extracted These causes were then explored further to identify appropriate principles for community-level interventions

3. Research Sites SiteTypePrimary ViolenceSecondary Violence VoortrekkerRural townCommunity protestXenophobic attacks KungcatshaRural townCommunity protestXenophobic attacks AzaniaRural townCommunity protestXenophobic attacks SlovoviewUrban/RDP/InformalCommunity protest & xenophobic attacks Community protest GladysvilleUrban/RDP/InformalCommunity protest & xenophobic attacks TroubleUrban/RDP/InformalCommunity protest & xenophobic attacks BokfonteinRural informalXenophobic violence prevented Local development, no protest Ficksburg Community protest

4. Level of Causes Causes% of communities where present Root CausesHigh levels of unemployment100% Poverty100% Inequality67% Use of apartheid era protest action50% History of violence in the community17% Proximate Causes Poor local governance (including):100% · Corruption83% · Lack of communication with communities83% · Competition for access to resources67% · Indifference to the needs of the community67% · Patronage networks50% · Politics of excess33% · Use of outsiders in official positions33% · Gender as an issue in local governance33% · Internal conflict17% · Lack of accountability17% · Poor treatment of community members by officials17% · Use of sex in exchange of opportunities17% · Nepotism17% · Inadequate leadership17% · Conflict between officials and civic leaders17%

5. Level of Causes Causes% of communities where present Proximate Causes Problems with services delivery:100% · Housing100% · Electricity67% · Education67% · Health50% · Water33% · Sanitation33% · Lack of recreational spaces33% Political friction in the community83% · Between different parties50% · Within the ANC50% Failure of previous peaceful protest actions67% High levels of crime50% Lack of judicial institutions such as a police station33% High number of foreign nationals33% Civic organisations take over33% Low educational levels17% High levels of substance abuse in community17% Contested border17% High density of population17% Workers protest action close to the community17%

6. Level of Causes Causes% of communities where present AcceleratorsPolice:100% · Use of aggression against protestors67% · Confused, weak and incompetent33% · Inaction17% · Use of outside units17% · Use of torture17% · Unable to access area17% Political entrepreneurs67% Economic entrepreneurs50% Youth involvement33% Collective violence occurs nearby17%

7. Short-term prevention Medium-term prevention Long-term prevention Root causes Poverty Unemployment Inequality Use of apartheid era protest action Proximate causes Poor service delivery Political conflict and entrepreneurship Poor local governance Failure of previous peaceful protest actions High levels of crime Accelerators The role of the police Political entrepreneurship Subaltern crowds (criminal and political opportunism) The role of the youth Collective violence Decelerators The role of the police The role of leaders Non-violent forms of protest action

8. Principles of community-level interventions for the prevention of collective violence: Understanding the notion of community Understanding the complexities of communities Defining the theoretical model of intervention Recognising the unique context of each community: community mapping Relationship and credibility building Encouraging democratic participation and processes in communities Long-term engagement required

9. Addressing the root causes at a community level- long-term prevention: Community collective action can be used to support initiatives that advocate for policies that address the issues of poverty, unemployment, and inequality Community collective action can be used to lobby for that community to be a recipient of economic development opportunities Organisations can play an important role in identifying and facilitating connections between these and the independent community-led movements established Case example 1: Creating “Safe communities of opportunity”, South Africa Case example 2: the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), India Case example 3: Community healing and economic development in Bokfontein, South Africa

10. Addressing the proximate causes at a community level – medium-term prevention: Independent community groups can become “watchdogs” of local governance structures and service delivery Community collective action can also be used to encourage the reporting of cases of corruption by local government officials Communities could make use of the media to highlight their needs and concerns Independent community-led movements should attempt to engage with local governance structures and create platforms and opportunities for communication Organisations can assist communities to connect with organisations with particular experience and skills in accessing information at the community level Organisations can play an important role in outlining the different complaints mechanisms that exist within government structures Case example 4: Holding the state to account: Citizens voice through report cards, Bangalore Case example 5: Using its New Law to Powerful Effect, South Africa Case example 6: Uncovering Corruption in the Thai School System, Thailand

11. Addressing the accelerators and increasing the decelerators of collective violence at a community level – immediate prevention: Building relationships between the independent community movement and the police Ensuring the presence of protest monitors from within the community Framing all protest actions in non-violent, peaceful terms Communities can also increase their ability to be sensitive to/aware of how subaltern crowds emerge and direct crowd behaviour in negative ways, to meet their own agenda Organisations can establish contact between the independent community movements and peace-building organisations that could provide capacity building Leaders should use their influence in the community to emphasise non- violent protest actions and condemn violent ones Case example 7: Peaceful protest action as a reaction to a military coup d’état, Honduras Case example 8: Using trained peace marshals, the United States of America

12. Concluding remarks