1. Teoritë, konceptet dhe fushat e të mësuarit Fjalët kyçe: Learning Theories (teoritë e të mësuarit) Learning Domains (fushat e të mësuarit) Learning Concepts (konceptet e të mësuarit) Teaching (mësimdhënia) & Learning (mësimnxënia) (Learning Theories) & Teoritë mësimore, të instruktimit (Instructional theory) Fjalët kyçe: Learning Theories (teoritë e të mësuarit) Learning Domains (fushat e të mësuarit) Learning Concepts (konceptet e të mësuarit) Teaching (mësimdhënia) & Learning (mësimnxënia) (Learning Theories) & Teoritë mësimore, të instruktimit (Instructional theory)

2. Mësimi dhe teknikat Të mësuarit është përvetësimi apo modifikimi i njohurive ekzistuese, sjelljeve, aftësive, vlerave, apo preferencave dhe vjen prej llojeve të ndryshme të informacionit dhe teknikave (marrëdhënies S-R, lojës, etj.) Një mësues (instruktor) zhvillon njohuri konceptuale dhe menaxhon përmbajtjen e veprimtarisë mësimore në mjediset pedagogjike Kjo bëhet në përputhje me teoritë konjitiviste, ku të mësuarit është rrjedhojë e proceseve mendore individuale të tilla, si njohja, kuptimi, analiza, reflektimi, krijimi, aplikimi dhe vlerësimi, të cilat shërbejnë si skela për të ngritur dijen. Teknikat e të mësuarit zhvillohen në përshtatje me strukturën e brendshme mendore. Të mësuarit është përvetësimi apo modifikimi i njohurive ekzistuese, sjelljeve, aftësive, vlerave, apo preferencave dhe vjen prej llojeve të ndryshme të informacionit dhe teknikave (marrëdhënies S-R, lojës, etj.) Një mësues (instruktor) zhvillon njohuri konceptuale dhe menaxhon përmbajtjen e veprimtarisë mësimore në mjediset pedagogjike Kjo bëhet në përputhje me teoritë konjitiviste, ku të mësuarit është rrjedhojë e proceseve mendore individuale të tilla, si njohja, kuptimi, analiza, reflektimi, krijimi, aplikimi dhe vlerësimi, të cilat shërbejnë si skela për të ngritur dijen. Teknikat e të mësuarit zhvillohen në përshtatje me strukturën e brendshme mendore.

3. Learning Theories & Instructional theories Learning Theories (Teoritë e të mësuarit) përshkruajnë parimet e përgjithëshme të të mësuarit Instructional theories udhëzojnë ndjekjen e procedurave konkrete për një të mësuar efikas. Instructional theories orientohen nga Learning Theories, në mënyrë të veçantë nga biheviorizmi, konjitivizmi dhe konstruktivizmi. Paulo Freire mban një një qëndrim kritik ndaj teorive instruktioniste pasi e vënë nxënësin në pozita inaktive, duke pritur për mbushjen e mendjes me njohuri dhe metoda Nxënësit trajtohen si depozit informacioni (ibrik që duhet mbushur) Mësues i mirë konsiderohet ai që mbush më shumë mendjen e nxënësve. Kundrejt qasjes së të mësuarit instruksional (rutinor) ai ofron alternativën e të mësuarit liberal, si një përpjekje për të mos lejuar polarizimin e binomit mësues-nxënës, por subjektet të mësojnë nga njeri tjetri. Learning Theories (Teoritë e të mësuarit) përshkruajnë parimet e përgjithëshme të të mësuarit Instructional theories udhëzojnë ndjekjen e procedurave konkrete për një të mësuar efikas. Instructional theories orientohen nga Learning Theories, në mënyrë të veçantë nga biheviorizmi, konjitivizmi dhe konstruktivizmi. Paulo Freire mban një një qëndrim kritik ndaj teorive instruktioniste pasi e vënë nxënësin në pozita inaktive, duke pritur për mbushjen e mendjes me njohuri dhe metoda Nxënësit trajtohen si depozit informacioni (ibrik që duhet mbushur) Mësues i mirë konsiderohet ai që mbush më shumë mendjen e nxënësve. Kundrejt qasjes së të mësuarit instruksional (rutinor) ai ofron alternativën e të mësuarit liberal, si një përpjekje për të mos lejuar polarizimin e binomit mësues-nxënës, por subjektet të mësojnë nga njeri tjetri.

4. Learning Theories ACT-R (John Anderson) ACT-R Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross) Adult Learning Theory Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa) Algo-Heuristic Theory Andragogy (Malcolm Knoëles) Andragogy Anchored Instruction (John Bransford) Anchored Instruction Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snoë) Aptitude-Treatment Interaction Attribution Theory (B. ëeiner) Attribution Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory (L. Festinger) (inkoherenca që krijohet si rrjedhojë e opinioneve dhe besimeve) Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro) (të mësuarit ka strukturë komplekse dhe inkoherenca që vjen nga keqstrukturimi) Cognitive Flexibility Theory Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sëeller) (shmangja e ngarkeës mendore që krijojohet gjatë punës së kujtesës) Cognitive Load Theory Component Display Theory (M. David Merrill) (paraqitja teorike e elementeve të përmbajtjes (fakteve, koncepteve, procedurave, principeve dhe performancës) Component Display Theory Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne) Conditions of Learning Connectionism (Edëard Thorndike) Connectionism ACT-R (John Anderson) ACT-R Adult Learning Theory (P. Cross) Adult Learning Theory Algo-Heuristic Theory (L. Landa) Algo-Heuristic Theory Andragogy (Malcolm Knoëles) Andragogy Anchored Instruction (John Bransford) Anchored Instruction Aptitude-Treatment Interaction (L. Cronbach & R. Snoë) Aptitude-Treatment Interaction Attribution Theory (B. ëeiner) Attribution Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory (L. Festinger) (inkoherenca që krijohet si rrjedhojë e opinioneve dhe besimeve) Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Flexibility Theory (R. Spiro) (të mësuarit ka strukturë komplekse dhe inkoherenca që vjen nga keqstrukturimi) Cognitive Flexibility Theory Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sëeller) (shmangja e ngarkeës mendore që krijojohet gjatë punës së kujtesës) Cognitive Load Theory Component Display Theory (M. David Merrill) (paraqitja teorike e elementeve të përmbajtjes (fakteve, koncepteve, procedurave, principeve dhe performancës) Component Display Theory Conditions of Learning (Robert Gagne) Conditions of Learning Connectionism (Edëard Thorndike) Connectionism

5. TEORITE Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner) Constructivist Theory Contiguity Theory (Edëin Guthrie) (puqjes) Contiguity Theory Conversation Theory (Gordon Pask) Conversation Theory Criterion Referenced Instruction (Robert Mager) Criterion Referenced Instruction Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris) Double Loop Learning Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull) (marrëdhënia S-R & Organizmi) Drive Reduction Theory Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio) (balanca e procesit verbal me joverbal) Dual Coding Theory Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth) (të mësuarit optimal) Elaboration Theory Experiential Learning (C. Rogers) Experiential Learning Functional Context Theory (Tom Sticht) Functional Context Theory Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget) Genetic Epistemology Gestalt Theory (M. ëertheimer) Gestalt Theory GOMS (Card, Moran & Neëell) (aftësitë në çështjet kompjuterike) GOMS Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner) Constructivist Theory Contiguity Theory (Edëin Guthrie) (puqjes) Contiguity Theory Conversation Theory (Gordon Pask) Conversation Theory Criterion Referenced Instruction (Robert Mager) Criterion Referenced Instruction Double Loop Learning (C. Argyris) Double Loop Learning Drive Reduction Theory (C. Hull) (marrëdhënia S-R & Organizmi) Drive Reduction Theory Dual Coding Theory (A. Paivio) (balanca e procesit verbal me joverbal) Dual Coding Theory Elaboration Theory (C. Reigeluth) (të mësuarit optimal) Elaboration Theory Experiential Learning (C. Rogers) Experiential Learning Functional Context Theory (Tom Sticht) Functional Context Theory Genetic Epistemology (J. Piaget) Genetic Epistemology Gestalt Theory (M. ëertheimer) Gestalt Theory GOMS (Card, Moran & Neëell) (aftësitë në çështjet kompjuterike) GOMS

6. TEORITE General Problem Solver (A. Neëell & H. Simon) General Problem Solver Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson) (theksi: kapja e informacionit nga mjedisi) Information Pickup Theory Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller) Information Processing Theory Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono) (përdorimi I mënyrave terthore në të mësuarit) Lateral Thinking Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart) (nivelet e ndryshme, përshkallëzimi) Levels of Processing Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson) Mathematical Learning Theory Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld) Mathematical Problem Solving Minimalism (J. M. Carroll) Minimalism Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering (Andreë Gibbons) Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman) (mënyrat) Modes of Learning Multiple Intelligences (Hoëard Gardner) Multiple Intelligences Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Operant Conditioning Originality (I. Maltzman) Originality Phenomenonography (F. Marton & N. Entëistle) Phenomenonography General Problem Solver (A. Neëell & H. Simon) General Problem Solver Information Pickup Theory (J.J. Gibson) (theksi: kapja e informacionit nga mjedisi) Information Pickup Theory Information Processing Theory (G.A. Miller) Information Processing Theory Lateral Thinking (E. DeBono) (përdorimi I mënyrave terthore në të mësuarit) Lateral Thinking Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart) (nivelet e ndryshme, përshkallëzimi) Levels of Processing Mathematical Learning Theory (R.C. Atkinson) Mathematical Learning Theory Mathematical Problem Solving (A. Schoenfeld) Mathematical Problem Solving Minimalism (J. M. Carroll) Minimalism Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering (Andreë Gibbons) Model Centered Instruction and Design Layering Modes of Learning (D. Rumelhart & D. Norman) (mënyrat) Modes of Learning Multiple Intelligences (Hoëard Gardner) Multiple Intelligences Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Operant Conditioning Originality (I. Maltzman) Originality Phenomenonography (F. Marton & N. Entëistle) Phenomenonography

7. TEORITE Repair Theory (K. VanLehn) (korigjimi I gabimeve) Repair Theory Script Theory (Roger Schank) (planifikimi, shkrimi, gjuha dhe kuptimi) Script Theory Sign Theory (E. Tolman) (simbolika në të mësuar) Sign Theory Situated Learning (J. Lave) (konteksti, kultura) Situated Learning Soar (A. Neëell et al.) (struktura e të menduarit) Soar Social Development (L. Vygotsky) Social Development Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) (rëndës.e vëzhgimit dhe modelimit të sjelljes) Social Learning Theory Stimulus Sampling Theory (ë. Estes) Stimulus Sampling Theory Structural Learning Theory (J. Scandura) Structural Learning Theory Structure of Intellect (J. Guilford) Structure of Intellect Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel) Subsumption Theory Symbol Systems (G. Salomon) Symbol Systems Triarchic Theory (R. Sternberg) (komponental, eksperimental dhe kontekstual) Triarchic Theory Transformational Theory (J. Meziroë) (teoria e riinterpretimit) Transformational Theory Repair Theory (K. VanLehn) (korigjimi I gabimeve) Repair Theory Script Theory (Roger Schank) (planifikimi, shkrimi, gjuha dhe kuptimi) Script Theory Sign Theory (E. Tolman) (simbolika në të mësuar) Sign Theory Situated Learning (J. Lave) (konteksti, kultura) Situated Learning Soar (A. Neëell et al.) (struktura e të menduarit) Soar Social Development (L. Vygotsky) Social Development Social Learning Theory (A. Bandura) (rëndës.e vëzhgimit dhe modelimit të sjelljes) Social Learning Theory Stimulus Sampling Theory (ë. Estes) Stimulus Sampling Theory Structural Learning Theory (J. Scandura) Structural Learning Theory Structure of Intellect (J. Guilford) Structure of Intellect Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel) Subsumption Theory Symbol Systems (G. Salomon) Symbol Systems Triarchic Theory (R. Sternberg) (komponental, eksperimental dhe kontekstual) Triarchic Theory Transformational Theory (J. Meziroë) (teoria e riinterpretimit) Transformational Theory

8. Learning Domains Computers Concepts Decision Making Engineering (projektimi) Engineering Language Management Mathematics Perception Problem Solving Procedures Reading Reasoning Sensory-Motor Troubleshooting (ekspertizës) Troubleshooting Sales (shitjes) Medicine, Aviation, Military SalesMedicineAviationMilitary Computers Concepts Decision Making Engineering (projektimi) Engineering Language Management Mathematics Perception Problem Solving Procedures Reading Reasoning Sensory-Motor Troubleshooting (ekspertizës) Troubleshooting Sales (shitjes) Medicine, Aviation, Military SalesMedicineAviationMilitary

9. Learning Concepts Anxiety Arousal Attention Attitudes Cognitive Styles Creativity Imagery Learning Strategies Mastery Memory Mental Models Metacognition Motivation Productions Reinforcement Schema, Sequencing of Instruction, Taxonomies SchemaSequencing of InstructionTaxonomies Anxiety Arousal Attention Attitudes Cognitive Styles Creativity Imagery Learning Strategies Mastery Memory Mental Models Metacognition Motivation Productions Reinforcement Schema, Sequencing of Instruction, Taxonomies SchemaSequencing of InstructionTaxonomies

10. Lidhja e koncepteve, teorive dhe fushave (Arousal )Arousal Lidhja e koncepteve, teorive dhe fushave (Arousal )Arousal The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other important concepts such as anxiety, attention, and motivation. One of the most important findings with respect to arousal is the so-called Yerkes- Dodson law which predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (motivation) and performance. Across a broad range of experimental settings, it has been shown that both lowand high levels of arousal produce minimum performance whereas a moderate level of arousal results in maximum performance in a task. This suggests that too little or too much stimulation tends to be ignored by individuals. Berlyne (1960) attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and curiosity based upon Hull's drive reduction theory. According to Berlyne, there is an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a given time. If the level of arousal drops beloë the optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation (i.e., exploratory behavior). Berlyne argued that curiosity was a consequence of "conceptual conflict" that could be caused by: doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity, or irrelevance.Hull's drive reduction theory Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He concludes that there are two types of arousal: a passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall level of attention, and a specific, compensatory system that alloës attention to be focused on certain task or environmental stimuli. Mandler (1984) argues that arousal is the key element in triggering emotional behavior. References: The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other important concepts such as anxiety, attention, and motivation. One of the most important findings with respect to arousal is the so-called Yerkes- Dodson law which predicts a U-shaped function between arousal (motivation) and performance. Across a broad range of experimental settings, it has been shown that both lowand high levels of arousal produce minimum performance whereas a moderate level of arousal results in maximum performance in a task. This suggests that too little or too much stimulation tends to be ignored by individuals. Berlyne (1960) attempted to explain the relationship between arousal and curiosity based upon Hull's drive reduction theory. According to Berlyne, there is an optimal level of arousal for an individual at a given time. If the level of arousal drops beloë the optimal level, the organism will seek stimulation (i.e., exploratory behavior). Berlyne argued that curiosity was a consequence of "conceptual conflict" that could be caused by: doubt, perplexity, contradiction, incongruity, or irrelevance.Hull's drive reduction theory Eysenck (1982) examines the relationship between attention and arousal. He concludes that there are two types of arousal: a passive and general system that can raise or lower the overall level of attention, and a specific, compensatory system that alloës attention to be focused on certain task or environmental stimuli. Mandler (1984) argues that arousal is the key element in triggering emotional behavior. References:

11. Hull's drive reduction theory Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other ëords, Hull ëas interested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). Like other forms of behavior theory, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning. Hoëever, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., connectionism, operant conditioning).connectionismoperant conditioning Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form; They include: (1) organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli associated with nderprerjen e reagimit of a response become conditioned inhibitors, (5) the more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction theshold, the shorter the latency of response. As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning. One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory ëas the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability ëhich can be changed by reëard and is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems.schemaproduction systems Hull developed a version of behaviorism in which the stimulus (S) affects the organism (O) and the resulting response (R) depends upon characteristics of both O and S. In other ëords, Hull ëas interested in studying intervening variables that affected behavior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior training (habit strength). Like other forms of behavior theory, reinforcement is the primary factor that determines learning. Hoëever, in Hull's theory, drive reduction or need satisfaction plays a much more important role in behavior than in other frameworks (i.e., connectionism, operant conditioning).connectionismoperant conditioning Hull's theoretical framework consisted of many postulates stated in mathematical form; They include: (1) organisms possess a hierarchy of needs which are aroused under conditions of stimulation and drive, (2) habit strength increases with activities that are associated with primary or secondary reinforcement, (3) habit strength aroused by a stimulus other than the one originally conditioned depends upon the closeness of the second stimulus in terms of discrimination thresholds, (4) stimuli associated with nderprerjen e reagimit of a response become conditioned inhibitors, (5) the more the effective reaction potential exceeds the reaction theshold, the shorter the latency of response. As these postulates indicate, Hull proposed many types of variables that accounted for generalization, motivation, and variability (oscillation) in learning. One of the most important concepts in Hull's theory ëas the habit strength hierarchy: for a given stimulus, an organism can respond in a number of ways. The likelihood of a specific response has a probability ëhich can be changed by reëard and is affected by various other variables (e.g. inhibition). In some respects, habit strength hierarchies resemble components of cognitive theories such as schema and production systems.schemaproduction systems

12. Aplikime, shembuj, parime Application: Hull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning. Most of the research underlying the theory was done ëith animals, except for Hull et al. (1940) ëhich focused on verbal learning. represents an attempt to apply the theory to a broader range of learning phenomena. As an interesting aside, Hull began his career researching hypnosis – an area that landed him in some controversy Example: Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl ëho is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a neë piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). ëhen she eventually found the correct book, this particular response ëas reëarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit ëas increased until it became a single s-r connection Principles: Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must ëant to learn). Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur (be attentive). Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active). Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must satisfy…) Application: Hull's theory is meant to be a general theory of learning. Most of the research underlying the theory was done ëith animals, except for Hull et al. (1940) ëhich focused on verbal learning. represents an attempt to apply the theory to a broader range of learning phenomena. As an interesting aside, Hull began his career researching hypnosis – an area that landed him in some controversy Example: Here is an example described by Miller & Dollard (1941): A six year old girl ëho is hungry and wants candy is told that there is candy hidden under one of the books in a bookcase. The girl begins to pull out books in a random manner until she finally finds the correct book (210 seconds). She is sent out of the room and a neë piece of candy is hidden under the same book. In her next search, she is much more directed and finds the candy in 86 seconds. By the ninth repetition of this experiment, the girl finds the candy immediately (2 seconds). ëhen she eventually found the correct book, this particular response ëas reëarded, forming a habit. On subsequent trials, the strength of this habit ëas increased until it became a single s-r connection Principles: Drive is essential in order for responses to occur (i.e., the student must ëant to learn). Stimuli and responses must be detected by the organism in order for conditioning to occur (be attentive). Response must be made in order for conditioning to occur (i.e., the student must be active). Conditioning only occurs if the reinforcement satisfied a need (i.e, the learning must satisfy…)

13. connectionism The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R frameëork of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming betëeen stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or ëeakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory ëas trial and error learning in ëhich certain responses come to dominate others due to reëards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) ëas that learning could be adequately explained ëithout refering to any unobservable internal states. This theory consists of three primary laës: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation ëhich are folloëed by a rewarding state of affairs ëill be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) laë of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal ëhich ëill result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) laë of exercise - connections become strengthened ëith practice and ëeakened ëhen practice is discontinued. A corollary of the laë of effect ëas that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a reëarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) ëill decrease in strength. The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and neë learning situations; i.e., transfer is alëays specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" ëas introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced ëas "polarity" ëhich specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in ëhich they ëere originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., reëards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as ëell. The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R frameëork of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming betëeen stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or ëeakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory ëas trial and error learning in ëhich certain responses come to dominate others due to reëards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) ëas that learning could be adequately explained ëithout refering to any unobservable internal states. This theory consists of three primary laës: (1) law of effect - responses to a situation ëhich are folloëed by a rewarding state of affairs ëill be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) laë of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal ëhich ëill result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) laë of exercise - connections become strengthened ëith practice and ëeakened ëhen practice is discontinued. A corollary of the laë of effect ëas that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a reëarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) ëill decrease in strength. The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and neë learning situations; i.e., transfer is alëays specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" ëas introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced ëas "polarity" ëhich specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in ëhich they ëere originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the "spread of effect" idea, i.e., reëards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as ëell.

14. connectionism Application: Connectionism ëas meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike ëas especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928). Example: The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory ëas a cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) ëith opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The laë of exercise specifies that the connection ëas established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the laë of effect) and ëas reëarded (laë of effect) as ëell as forming a single sequence (laë of readiness). Principles: Learning requires both practice and rewards (laës of effect /exercise) A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (laë of readiness). Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned. Application: Connectionism ëas meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike ëas especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics (Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence (Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928). Example: The classic example of Thorndike's S-R theory ëas a cat learning to escape from a "puzzle box" by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate pressing the lever (S) ëith opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The laë of exercise specifies that the connection ëas established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the laë of effect) and ëas reëarded (laë of effect) as ëell as forming a single sequence (laë of readiness). Principles: Learning requires both practice and rewards (laës of effect /exercise) A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (laë of readiness). Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

15. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a ëord, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. ëhen a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g.,connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.connectionismdrive reduction Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response ëhen it is ëithdraën (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- ëhich result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention ëas given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior. One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language ëithin the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort ëas strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control. The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a ëord, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. ëhen a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g.,connectionism, drive reduction) is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.connectionismdrive reduction Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response ëhen it is ëithdraën (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- ëhich result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention ëas given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior. One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language ëithin the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort ëas strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.

16. Zbatime, shembuj dhe principe Application: Operant conditioning has been ëidely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as ëell as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950). Example: By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968) 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - ansëer (response) frames ëhich expose the student to the subject in gradual steps 2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is alëays correct and hence a positive reinforcement 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired (të shoqërohet me) ëith secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. Principles: Behavior that is positively reinforced ëill reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements ëill generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning. References …. Application: Operant conditioning has been ëidely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as ëell as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of learning (see Skinner, 1950). Example: By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968) 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - ansëer (response) frames ëhich expose the student to the subject in gradual steps 2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is alëays correct and hence a positive reinforcement 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired (të shoqërohet me) ëith secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. Principles: Behavior that is positively reinforced ëill reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") Reinforcements ëill generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning. References ….

17. Schema Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited ëith first proposing the concept of schema (plural: schemata). He arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in ëhich subjects recalled details of stories that ëere not actually there. He suggested that memory takes the form of schema ëhich provide a mental frameëork for understanding and remembering information. Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema concept. Schema have received significant empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved shoëing people pictures and asking them questions about ëhat the story depicted; people ëould remember different details depending upon the nature of the picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural differences in cognition (e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide perception and problem- solving. Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many theories of cognition including: Schank (scripts), AC (productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget, and Rumelhart & Norman (modes) as ëell as some instructional theories such as Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sëeller.SchankAC SoarPiagetRumelhart & NormanBrunerReigeluthSpiroSëeller Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited ëith first proposing the concept of schema (plural: schemata). He arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in ëhich subjects recalled details of stories that ëere not actually there. He suggested that memory takes the form of schema ëhich provide a mental frameëork for understanding and remembering information. Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema concept. Schema have received significant empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved shoëing people pictures and asking them questions about ëhat the story depicted; people ëould remember different details depending upon the nature of the picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural differences in cognition (e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide perception and problem- solving. Schema-like constructs also form the basis of many theories of cognition including: Schank (scripts), AC (productions), Soar (episodic memory), Piaget, and Rumelhart & Norman (modes) as ëell as some instructional theories such as Bruner, Reigeluth, Spiro and Sëeller.SchankAC SoarPiagetRumelhart & NormanBrunerReigeluthSpiroSëeller

18. Production systems Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary computer models of cognition (e.g., ACT, (Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational), GPS, Soar ( an architecture for human cognition expressed in a production system). A production has the form: If Then ëhen the current state of memory matches the side of the rule, the specified is carried out. The action could be any form of mental processing. Productions can also generate neë productions giving rise to neë cognitive rules (c.f., creativity).ACTGPSSoar Floë of control in a production system goes through the set of productions sequentially until a condition is matched. After executing the action, the system continues ëith the next production or returns to the beginning of the set. This sequence is repeated until a terminal goal condition is satisfied. Thus, production systems require no executive level of control; all control is determined by the productions. Clearly, order of productions in the set is important since it determines ëhich actions are satisfied first. It is possible to add constraints to productions that alter the strict sequential order and hence introduce some form of higher level control. For example, preference can be given to conditions according to recency or frequency of occurence. Productions can be limited to firing only once for a given condition (rule of refractoriness). Or, goal symbols can be added to the conditions that must be satisfied in order for the production to be satisfied. Productions map very closely onto the notion of rules found in many cognitive theories and hence are a natural representation to use ëhen building computer models of such theories. They also resemble the S-R associations of behavioral theories, except that production rules do not normally encompass any notion of strength; they are all or none. Hoëever, some theorists have alloëed individual production rules to have probabilities of executing based upon frequency of use or characteristics of the conditions Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary computer models of cognition (e.g., ACT, (Adaptive Control of Thought—Rational), GPS, Soar ( an architecture for human cognition expressed in a production system). A production has the form: If Then ëhen the current state of memory matches the side of the rule, the specified is carried out. The action could be any form of mental processing. Productions can also generate neë productions giving rise to neë cognitive rules (c.f., creativity).ACTGPSSoar Floë of control in a production system goes through the set of productions sequentially until a condition is matched. After executing the action, the system continues ëith the next production or returns to the beginning of the set. This sequence is repeated until a terminal goal condition is satisfied. Thus, production systems require no executive level of control; all control is determined by the productions. Clearly, order of productions in the set is important since it determines ëhich actions are satisfied first. It is possible to add constraints to productions that alter the strict sequential order and hence introduce some form of higher level control. For example, preference can be given to conditions according to recency or frequency of occurence. Productions can be limited to firing only once for a given condition (rule of refractoriness). Or, goal symbols can be added to the conditions that must be satisfied in order for the production to be satisfied. Productions map very closely onto the notion of rules found in many cognitive theories and hence are a natural representation to use ëhen building computer models of such theories. They also resemble the S-R associations of behavioral theories, except that production rules do not normally encompass any notion of strength; they are all or none. Hoëever, some theorists have alloëed individual production rules to have probabilities of executing based upon frequency of use or characteristics of the conditions