1. + Bell Ringer 1.30.2012 Objective: SWBAT define cognition and explain models of memory. Take out your TWO conditioning projects to turn in. THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, write down something you know about COGNITION.

2. + The AP Exam May 7, 2012 – 12 noon There are 98 days until the exam (including weekends/holidays). The curve needs to become steeper, so from now on: 60% = C 70% = B 80% = A

3. + The AP Exam We are halfway through the material!!! Cognition is 8 – 10% of the exam, one of the biggest sections. I am planning on two weeks of review at the end of the year. I will hold Saturday study sessions the month before the exam.

4. + Unit 8: Cognition Key Ideas Models of memory Encoding new memories Organization of memories in LTM Retrieving stored memories Forgetting Thinking Problem solving Creativity Language

5. + COGNITION cognition: all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering language. Thinking, memory, language

6. + Memory memory: human capacity to register, retain, and remember information. There are three models of memory: Information Processing Model Levels of Processing Theory or Semantic Network Theory Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

7. + Models of Memory Different models are used because no one model accounts for all memory phenomena.

8. + Information Processing Model Our mind is compared to a computer Encoding, storage, retrieval Encoding: the process of putting information into the memory system Storage: the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory

9. + Information Processing Model e.g. encoding is like typing information into a word document. Storage is like saving the document to your hard drive. Retrieval would be later opening the document. We are unable to process all incoming sensory information, so we have to focus on aspects of available information.

10. + Information Processing Model focused (selective) attention: attending to one task over another. divided attention: the difficult process of trying to attend to two complex tasks at once.

11. + Information Processing Model Research with people listening to two different inputs in each ear shows that when directed to only attend to one ear, other information was not processed, unless the participant heard their name. Cocktail party effect: hearing your name, even in noisy situations, draws your attention.

12. + Levels of Processing Model The ability to form memories depends upon the depth of the processing. Shallow processing: structural encoding emphasizes structure of incoming sensory information, like lines or general shapes. e.g. when waiting to cross the street, we know that traffic goes by, but we might not pay attention to every vehicle.

13. + Levels of Processing Model Deep processing: semantic encoding involves forming an association or attaching meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer-lasting memories. elaboration: creating associations between new and existing memories.

14. + Levels of Processing Model Semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input. Most of the information we recall over a long period of time is semantically encoded.

15. + Levels of Processing Model Self-reference effect ( self-referent encoding): processing information deemed important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall.

16. + DO NOW 2.23.2011 Write down your reading assignment: READ: Modules 24 – 30 (p. 345 – 429) DUE: Friday, March 4 THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, briefly describe the information processing model OR the levels of processing model of memory.

17. + Three-Stage Model Atkinson-Shiffrin model: three memory systems – sensory, short- term, and long-term. Sensory memory: memory system that holds external events from the senses for up to a few seconds.

18. + Three-Stage Model visual encoding: the encoding of picture images. iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli. This is why we don’t see gaps between frames in movies.

19. + Three-Stage Model acoustic encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words. echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Lasts for about 4 seconds. This accounts for why we can hear a steady stream of sound.

20. + Three-Stage Model Selective attention facilitates the encoding of sensory memory into short-term memory. automatic processing: unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things.

21. + Three-Stage Model parallel processing: a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously. effortful processing: encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort.

22. + Three-Stage Model Feature extraction (pattern recognition): finding a match for new raw information in sensory storage by actively searching through long-term memory.

23. + Short-Term Memory Short-term memory (STM): working memory with about 20 seconds before information is forgotten. Can hold seven plus or minus two items.

24. + Short-Term Memory How do we combat this short term memory? rehearsal: conscious repetition of information to either maintain information in STM or to encode it for storage.

25. + Short-Term Memory maintenance rehearsal: repetition that keeps information in STM about 20 seconds. elaborative rehearsal: repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories stored in LTM.

26. + DO NOW 2.24.2011 Write down your reading assignment: READ: Modules 24 – 30 (p. 345 – 429) DUE: Friday, March 4 THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, briefly describe sensory memory.

27. + Short-Term Memory Chunking: grouping information into meaningful units increasing the capacity of STM. e.g. phone numbers Mnemonic devices: memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to remember.

28. + Short-Term Memory Method of loci: uses visualization with familiar objects on a path to recall information in a list. Peg word system: uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme (“one is a bun, two is…”)

29. + Short-Term Memory Baddley’s working memory model: a more complex model than just passive STM. phonological loop: briefly stores information about language sounds with an acoustic code from sensory memory and a rehearsal function that lets us repeat words in the loop.

30. + Short-Term Memory visuospatial working memory: briefly stores visual and spatial information from sensory memory, including imagery (mental pictures). central executive: actively integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and long- term memory as we associate old and new information, solve problems, and perform other cognitive tasks.

31. + Short-Term Memory Working memory accounts for our ability to carry on a conversation (phonological loop) while exercising (visuospatial working memory) at the same time.

32. + Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM): relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity, LTM is subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit memory.

33. + Long-Term Memory Explicit (declarative) memory: memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows and can verbalize. Explicit memory is subdivided into semantic and episodic memory.

34. + Bell Ringer 1.31.2012 Objective: SWBAT explain models of memory and identify common problems of memory. Remember your reading assignment! THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, briefly summarize ONE of the models of memory (information processing, levels of processing, or Atkinson- Shriffrin)

35. + Long-Term Memory Semantic memory: memory of general knowledge or objective facts. Episodic memory: memory of personally experienced events.

36. + Long-Term Memory Implicit (nondeclarative) memory: retention without conscious recollection of learning skills and dispositions. Procedural memory: memory of motor or cognitive skills, and classical and operant conditioning effects. Tasks that we perform without thinking. e.g. tying our shoelaces

37. + Organization of Memories Hierarchies: systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes. Plants  Flowers  Rose

38. + Organization of Memories Concepts: mental representations of related things. Prototypes: the most typical examples of a concept.

39. + Organization of Memories Semantic networks: more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others. Schemas: frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events based on past experience. Script: a schema for an event.

40. + Organization of Memories Connectionism theory: memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which work together to process a single memory. Neural network: parallel processing model that emphasizes the simultaneous processing of information, which occurs automatically and without our awareness.

41. + Biology of Long-Term Memory According to neuroscientists, learning involves strengthening of neural connections at the synapses, called long-term potentiation (LTP).

42. + Biology of Long-Term Memory LTP involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories. This requires fewer neurotransmitters to make neurons fire and an increase in receptor sites.

43. + Biology of Long-Term Memory Flashbulb memory: a vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. e.g. where were you when you heard about 9/11?

44. + Biology of Long-Term Memory Associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and hippocampus involved in emotional memories.

45. + Biology of Long-Term Memory Specific regions are more actively involved in both short-term and long- term memories. thalamus: involved in encoding sensory information into STM.

46. + Biology of Long-Term Memory hippocampus: involved in putting information from STM into LTM.

47. + Biology of Long-Term Memory amygdala: involved in the storage of emotional memory.

48. + Biology of Long-Term Memory cerebellum: processes implicit memories and seems to store procedural memory and classically conditioned memories.

49. + Biology of Long-Term Memory Destruction of the hippocampus results in anterograde amnesia, the inability to put new information into explicit memory. No new semantic memories are formed.

50. + Biology of Long-Term Memory Retrograde amnesia: involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head. This may result from disruption of the process of long-term potentiation.

51. + Retrieval Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.

52. + Retrieval Recognition: identification of something as familiar. e.g. multiple choice and matching questions on a test. Recall: retrieval of information from LTM in the absence of any other information or cues. e.g. essay or fill-in-the-blank questions

53. + Retrieval Reconstruction: retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information. Confabulation: process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you’re trying to remember.

54. + Retrieval Misinformation effect: incorporation of misleading information into memories of a given event. Research by Elizabeth Loftus.

55. + Retrieval Hermann Ebbinghaus experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using a list of meaningless syllables. Overlearning: continuing to practice after memorizing information makes it more resistant to forgetting. SPE Demo

56. + Bell Ringer2.1.2012 Objective: SWBAT explain retrieval errors and the basics of language. Remember your reading assignment! THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, briefly explain the difference between explicit and implicit memory.

57. + Retrieval Serial position effect: better recall for information that comes at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect) of a list of words.

58. + Retrieval What helps us remember? Retrieval cue: a stimulus that provides a trigger to get an item out of memory. Pass out demonstration worksheets.

59. + Retrieval FINEK OPONS KROF PUC ECUSAR KNIFE SPOON FORK CUP SAUCER

60. + Retrieval NYPAS FELA KTALS DUB LOBSOMS PANSY LEAF STALK BUD BLOSSOM

61. + Retrieval Unscramble the following word: LETPA PETAL or PLATE Why did half the class get a different answer?

62. + Retrieval Priming: activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously.

63. + Retrieval massed practice: cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session. Does not help us remember information as well. distributed practice: spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions typically produces better retrieval than massed practice.

64. + Retrieval Encoding specificity principle: retrieval depends upon the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved. e.g. Information learned by listening should be tested that way.

65. + Retrieval Context-dependent memory: physical setting in which a person learns information is encoded along with the information and becomes part of the memory trace. i.e. you should take tests where you learned the material. You may be able to visualize the setting as well.

66. + Retrieval Mood congruence (mood- dependent memory): tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. e.g. when you’re sad, you can only think of other sad times in your life.

67. + Retrieval State-dependent memory effect: tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded. e.g. Although memory of anything learned when people are drunk is not good, if someone was drunk when they hid a gift, he or she might recall where the gift was hidden when they were drunk again.

68. + Forgetting Forgetting: the inability to retrieve previously stored information. Forgetting may result from a failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access information from LTM.

69. + Forgetting Encoding failure results from failure to enter LTM because we did not pay attention to the stimuli. What does a penny really look like? We have seen and used these coins a lot, but didn’t necessarily pay a ton of attention to every detail.

70. + Forgetting

71. + Decay of stored memories can be explained by a gradual fading of the physical memory trace. Neural connections fade and disappear when we don’t use them. e.g. remembering all the countries and capitals of the world.

72. + Cues and Interference Interference: learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when items are similar.

73. + Cues and Interference Proactive interference: the process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories. Can’t remember the countries in South America because you can only think about the countries in Africa. You can’t remember geometry concepts because you can only think about algebra.

74. + Cues and Interference Retroactive interference: process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories. You just learned the Spanish vocabulary for food, but can’t remember the vocabulary for colors that you learned at the beginning of the year.

75. + Cues and Interference Proactive interference is forward- acting. If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember B because A got in the way. Retroactive interference is backward acting. If we learn A, then B, and we can’t remember A because B got in the way.

76. + Cues and Interference Repression: the tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind according to Freud. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the often temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in LTM.

77. + Forgetting Relearning: a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again. If relearning takes as much time as initial learning, our memory of the information has decayed.

78. + Cues and Interference Misattribution error: confusing the source of information. e.g. Remembering something we see in the movies as actually having happened.

79. + Language Language: communication system based on words and grammar. Spoken, written, or gestured words and the way they are combined to communicate meaning from person to person, and to transmit civilization’s accumulated knowledge.

80. + Building Blocks: Phonemes and Morphemes Phonemes: smallest units of sound in spoken language. P, A, K There are about 100 different phonemes total. English uses about 45.

81. + Building Blocks: Phonemes and Morphemes Morphemes: the smallest unit of language that has meaning. Simple words, prefixes, suffixes pre, post, ed, er Most morphemes are a combination of phonemes. F-R-M F-R-M-ER

82. + Combination Rules Grammar: a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. How words are combined and used. Syntax: rule that are used to order words into grammatically sensible sentences. Rules that regulate the order of words.

83. + Combination Rules Semantics: a set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. Sentences have both surface structure (words and phrases) and deep structure (underlying meaning).

84. + Bell Ringer2.2.2012 Objective: SWBAT define thinking and creativity, and explain theories of language acquisition and problem solving. Reading notes DUE MONDAY!!! THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, define phonemes, morphemes, syntax, and semantics.

85. + Language Acquisition Stages babbling: an infant’s spontaneous production of speech sounds (phonemes). begins around 4 months old. At first, babies can make all phoneme sounds. By 10 months, the phonemes a baby uses narrow to the language(s) spoken around him or her.

86. + Language Acquisition Stages holophrase: one-word to convey meaning. characteristic of a 1-year-old. “Go!” “Food!”

87. + Language Acquisition Stages Telegraphic speech: meaningful two-word sentences, usually a noun and a verb, and usually in the correct order. 2-year-old “Eat cookie”

88. + Language Acquisition Stages Between 2 and 3, the child’s vocabulary expands exponentially. Sentences also increase in length and complexity. By 3, children begin to follow the rules of grammar without any instruction.

89. + Language Acquisition Stages Overgeneralization (Overregulation): application of grammatical rules without making appropriate exceptions. e.g. “I goed to the store” As language develops further, children are able to express more abstract ideas that go beyond the physical world and include their feelings.

90. + Theories of Language Acquisition Nativist perspective: the idea that the human brain has an innate capacity for acquiring language (language acquisition device). Major theorist: Noam Chomsky

91. + Theories of Language Acquisition Children are born with a universal sense of grammar. There is a critical period for language development. If children are not exposed to language before adolescence, they will be unable to acquire language. e.g. Genie, the abused girl

92. + Theories of Language Acquisition Evidence: Overgeneralization – children generate sentences they have never heard before. No parent ever teaches his or her child to say “I hate you, Mommy!” Nature or nurture?

93. + Theories of Language Acquisition B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language by association, reinforcement, and imitation. Babies merely imitate the phonemes around them and get reinforcement for them.

94. + Theories of Language Acquisition Their first meaningful words are just the result of shaping done by their parents. Nature or nurture?

95. + Theories of Language Acquisition Social interactivist perspective: babies are biologically equipped for learning language, which may be activated or constrained by experience. Both nature and nurture.

96. + Theories of Language Acquisition Cognitive neuroscientists emphasize that the building of dense neuronal connections during the first few years of life is critical for the mastery of grammar.

97. + Theories of Language Acquisition Linguistic relativity hypothesis: According to Whorf, our language guides and determines our thinking. Language influences thought.

98. + Thinking According to Benjamin Whorf, thinking affects our language which then affects our thoughts. metacognition: thinking about how you think We use metacognition whenever we think about how to solve problems to attain goals.

99. + Problem Solving How do we solve problems? algorithm: problem-solving strategy that involves a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to certain types of problems. Although you will eventually solve the problem, it is a slow process.

100. + Problem Solving e.g. SPLOYOCHYG We could try our every combination of these letters one-by-one to figure out what the word is, but this would give us 907,200 options.

101. + Problem Solving heuristics: a problem-solving strategy used as a mental shortcut to quickly simplify and solve a problem, but does not guarantee a correct solution. Try our example again, and apply rules you know about grammar, spelling, and the context of this class. e.g. SPLOYOCHYG

102. + Problem Solving insight: the sudden appearance (often creative) or awareness of a solution to a problem. trial and error approach: trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to solve the problem.

103. + Problem Solving Inductive reasoning: reasoning from the specific to the general. Forming concepts about all members of a category based on some members, which is often correct but may be wrong if the members chosen do not fairly represent all of the members.

104. + Problem Solving

105. + Deductive reasoning: reasoning from the general to the specific. Logically correct and leads to good answers when the initial rules of assumptions are true. e.g. dogs have four legs, ear, and are members of the canine family.

106. + Obstacles to Problem Solving Fixation: an inability to look at a problem from a fresh perspective and using a prior strategy that may not lead to success.

107. + Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental set: applying only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new or different strategies. If we solve 10 of 50 math problems using one formula, we will probably try the same method for the 11th. This might not work because the problem may require a different formula.

108. + Obstacles to Problem Solving Functional fixedness: when we are not able to recognize novel uses for an object because we are so familiar with its common use.

109. + Obstacles to Problem Solving There is a loose screw in the table and you spend hours looking for a screwdriver to fix it. You have a nail sticking up from the floor boards and can’t fix it until you find your hammer. You are at a picnic sitting on a plastic blanket when it starts to rain. You run for cover and end up getting soaked.

110. + Obstacles to Problem Solving availability heuristic: a tendency to estimate the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind. Would you rather ride in a car or an airplane?

111. + Obstacles to Problem Solving representative heuristic: tendency to judge the likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype. Is someone who loves to solve math problems more likely to be a mathematics professor or a high school student? High school students, because there are so many more students than professors!

112. + Obstacles to Problem Solving framing: the way an issue is stated. How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Which is better, 90% fat free or 10% fat?

113. + Obstacles to Problem Solving anchoring effect: tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point.

114. + Biases Confirmation bias: tendency to notice or seek information that already supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas. To lessen this bias, we can just consider the opposite view. e.g. If I’m a researcher who thinks girls are smarter than boys, maybe I only look at the top 10% of girls and the bottom 10% of boys.

115. + Biases Belief perseverance: the tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited. e.g. In history, when people would still believe the Earth was the center of the universe, even when heliocentricity was proven.

116. + Biases Belief bias: the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid. For example, in an episode of the TV show House, a doctor believed that vitamin C could cure polio.

117. + Biases Hindsight bias: the tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event. We thought the Patriots would win the Super Bowl. But after the game, our friends heard us say, “Oh, I always knew the Giants would win!”

118. + Bell Ringer2.6.2012 Objective: SWBAT define creativity and do experiments to test their own memory. Take out your reading notes to be checked. THEN, on your DO NOW sheet, briefly explain one of the theories of language acquisition.

119. + Biases Overconfidence bias: the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. Thinking that you never have these biases yourself!

120. + Creativity Creativity: the ability to think about a problem or idea in new and unusual ways to come up with unconventional solutions.

121. + Creativity Convergent thinkers: conventional thinking directed toward a single correct solution. Divergent thinkers: thinking that produces many alternatives and ideas.

122. + Creativity brainstorming: generating lots of possible solutions to a problem without making prior evaluative judgments.

123. + Bell Ringer2.7.2012 Objective: SWBAT review for the Unit 8 exam. In your own words, define an algorithm and an heuristic.

124. + Bell Ringer2.9.2012 Objective: SWBAT demonstrate mastery on their Unit 8 FRQ. Choose at least 3 of the following terms and define them in your own words: Broca’s areaphonemesmodeling Chunkingencoding confirmation bias critical periodoverconfidence bias

125. + Bell Ringer 2.10.2012 Objective: SWBAT understand how a FRQ is graded. NEW READING: MOD. 8-11 (P. 133 – 189) – DUE TUESDAY, 2/21 What went well on the FRQ? What do you hope to improve on for the next FRQ?

126. + Scoring the FRQ General Considerations: 1. Answers must be presented in sentences, and sentences must be cogent enough for students’ meaning to be apparent. Spelling and grammatical mistakes do not reduce students’ scores, but spelling must be sufficiently accurate for the reader to be convinced of the word intended. 2. Within a point, students will not be penalized for misinformation unless it directly contradicts or obscures correct information that would otherwise have scored the point.

127. + Scoring the FRQ 3. Students can score points only if information is presented in context. This means that they must clearly convey which part of the question is being answered before a point can be earned. Terms such as “She,” “Her,” “Savannah,” or “the test” are all sufficient to establish context. However, it is also possible to infer context from the order of the essay, if it is consistent with the order of the question. 4. Definitions without application are not sufficient to score points. A definition may contribute to the answer, but students must also provide a specific application related to some aspect of the question, independent of the definition — for example, score: “Encoding failure happens when information is not put into memory. If information is not encoded, it cannot be recalled for the test” (correct definition supports specific application).

128. + Scoring the FRQ 5. Because definitions alone do not earn credit, if students provide an incorrect definition but a correct application, score the point based on the application. 6. Every point requires students to relate their answers to the provided scenario. 7. In part A students may address either Savannah’s successful learning of Japanese OR her performance for each point. In part B students may address either how she prepares for OR takes the exam for each point. 8. The examples provided in the following scoring guidelines for each point are not to be considered exhaustive.