1. BELL RINGER 1.9.2012  Take out your reading assignment and dream log projects to turn in.  If you did any extra credit, turn them in at this time as well.  On your bell ringer sheet, briefly describe “learning” in your own words.

2. Unit 7: Learning AP PsychologyMs. Desgrosellier

3. Key Ideas:  Classical conditioning  Classical conditioning paradigm  Classical conditioning learning curve  Strength of conditioning  Classical aversive conditioning  Operant conditioning  Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning  Operant conditioning training procedures  Operant aversive conditioning  Reinforcers  Operant conditioning training schedules of reinforcement  Superstitious behavior  Cognitive processes in learning  The contingency model  Latent learning  Insight learning  Social learning  Biological factors in learning  Preparedness evolves  Instinctive draft

4. Learning  learning : a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience.  This is an example of nurture.

5. Classical Conditioning  Learning which takes place when two or more stimuli are presented together.  An unconditioned stimulus is paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus until it acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.  The subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimulus.

6. Classical Conditioning  Can be used to overcome fears, increasing or decreasing immune functioning, and increasing or decreasing attraction of people or products.

7. Classical Conditioning  Stimulus: a change in the environment that elicits (brings about) a response.  Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that initially does not elicit a response.

8. Classical Conditioning  Unconditioned stimulus (US): reflexively, or automatically, brings about the conditioned response.  Unconditioned response (UR): an automatic, involuntary reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

9. Classical Conditioning  Conditioned stimulus (CS): a neutral stimulus (NS) at first, but when paired with the US, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).  Acquisition: in classical conditioning, learning to give a known response to a new stimulus, the neutral stimulus.

10. Classical Conditioning  Pavlov used classical conditioning to train his dogs. Reflexive behavior US (Meat)  UR (Salivating) Acquisition trials NS (Bell) + US (Meat)  UR (Salivating) Acquisition demonstrated CS (Bell)  CR (Salivation)

11. Classical Conditioning

12.  CS = the organism LEARNED to respond to it.  US = the organism responds REFLEXIVELY

13. Classical Conditioning  In classical conditioning, the learner is passive – behavior is learned by association.  Presentation of the US strengthens or reinforces the behavior.  Video (The Office)

14. Strength of Conditioning  Delayed conditioning: ideal training – the NS precedes the US and they briefly overlap.  Produces the strongest conditioning.  Simultaneous conditioning: NS and US are paired together at the same time.  Produces weak conditioning.

15. Strength of Conditioning  Trace conditioning: NS presented first, removed, then the US is presented.  Produces moderately strong conditioning.  Backward conditioning: US presented first and NS follows.  Usually produces no conditioning.  e.g. when a pregnant woman vomits hours after eating a burrito often will not eat a burrito again.

16. Little Albert Study  John B. Watson conditioning a nine-month- old infant known as Little Albert to fear a rat.  US = Loud noise  UR = Crying to loud noise  NS = The rat  CS = The rat  CR = Crying when seeing the rat

17. Little Albert Study  Extinction: repeatedly presenting a CS without an US leads to return of NS.  e.g. showing the rat over and over with no loud noise.

18. Little Albert Study  Spontaneous recovery: after extinction, and without training, the previous CS suddenly elicits the CR again temporarily.  e.g. seeing the rat after a short break, Little Albert starts crying again.

19. Little Albert Study  Generalization: stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training.  Little Albert crying when he sees anything white and fuzzy.

20. Little Albert Study  Discrimination: the ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the CS elicits the CR.  Little Albert NOT crying when he sees other white, fuzzy things.

21. Little Albert Study  Higher-order conditioning: classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.  The new CR is not as strong as the original CR.  e.g. Conditioning your dog to salivate to a light instead of a bell

22. Little Albert Study Acquisition Trials: NS (Light) + CS (Bell)  CR (Salivation) Acquisition Demonstrated: new CS (Light)  CR (Salivation)

23. Classical Aversive Conditioning  Conditioned taste aversion: an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

24. BELL RINGER 1.11.2012  Think about the conditioning experiment from yesterday’s Bell Ringer (Martese, Toyin, and cookies).  What would happen if extinction occurred?  Spontaneous recovery?  Generalization?  Descrimination?

25. Operant Conditioning  learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain voluntary behavior and the consequences of the behavior (pleasant or unpleasant) determine the likelihood of its recurrence.

26. Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning  E.L. Thorndike experimented with hungry cats. He put them in “puzzle boxes” and placed a fish outside.  To get the fish, the cats stepped on a pedal, which opened the door.

27. Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning

28.  The cats clawed at the door at first until they accidently stepped on the pedal.  The time it took the cats to escape gradually fell.

29. Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning  Thorndike called this instrumental learning: associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences.  Law of Effect: behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened.

30. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  The ABC’s of behavior:  A: antecedents (or stimuli) that are present before a behavior occurs.  B: behavior that the organism voluntarily emits.  C: consequences that follow the behavior.

31. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  positive reinforcement: reward training, a rewarding consequence that follows a behavior or response that increases the probability that the response will occur again.  e.g. giving a child allowance after they do their chores  e.g. giving a piece of candy after a student gives the correct answer

32. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  negative reinforcement: removal of an aversive (bad) consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.  e.g. taking an aspirin when you have a headache.  e.g. putting on your seatbelt when you hear the buzzer in your car.

33. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  Reinforcement = increasing behavior!  Video (The Big Bang Theory)

34. DO NOW2.9.2011  Take out your reading notes to be checked.  THEN briefly describe the differences and similarities between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

35. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  Positive punishment: an aversive (bad) consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.  e.g. every time a student talks out of turn they get shocked  e.g. bank fees when your overdraft

36. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  Negative punishment (omission training): removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.  e.g. taking away your cell phone for getting bad grades  e.g. getting grounded for missing your curfew

37. B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures  Punishment = decreasing behavior!  “Positive” = giving a consequence  “Negative” = taking something away

38. Operant Aversive Conditioning  Aversive conditioning is both negative reinforcement and punishment.  Avoidance behavior takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins.  e.g. a dog jumping over a hurdle to avoid an electric shock.

39. Operant Aversive Conditioning  Escape behavior takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started.  e.g. the dog is shocked and jumps the hurdle to stop the shocking.

40. Operant Aversive Conditioning  Learned helplessness: the feeling of futility and passive resignation that results from the inability to avoid repeated aversive events  If it then becomes possible to avoid or escape the aversive stimuli, it is unlikely that the learner will respond.

41. BELL RINGER 1.13.2012  Objective: SWBAT define and provide examples of latent learning, insight, social learning, and instinctive drift.  In your own words, provide an example of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment & negative punishment.

42. Reinforcers  primary reinforcer: something that is biologically important, and thus, rewarding.  e.g. food, sleep, oxygen  secondary reinforcer: something that is rewarding because it is associated with a primary reinforcer.  e.g. money, points, gold stars

43. Reinforcers  Generalized Reinforcer: secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers.  e.g. money

44. Reinforcers  Token economy: an operant conditioning training system that has been used extensively in mental hospitals and jails.  Tokens are given to positively reinforce desired behavior.  Tokens can then be exchanged for items and special privileges, like food, TV time, or weekend passes.

45. Teaching a New Behavior  Shaping: positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior.  e.g. If I want my dog to eat in the laundry room instead of the kitchen, I might slowly move the bowl and reward the dog every time he eats at his new location. Eventually, he’ll be eating in the laundry room.

46. Teaching a New Behavior  Chaining: establishing a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence, then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

47. Teaching a New Behavior  e.g. Trainers at an aquarium will train their animal to do a routine and reward the desired behavior step by step (jump, flip, splash). Eventually, they will only reward the animal when it does the entire sequence.

48. Schedules of Reinforcement  A schedule refers to the training program that states how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner.

49. Schedules of Reinforcement  Continuous reinforcement: schedule that provides reinforcement following the particular behavior every time it is emitted.  Best for the acquisition of a new behavior.

50. Schedules of Reinforcement  Partial reinforcement (intermittent schedule): occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior.  Produces responding that is more resistant to extinction.  4 types of partial reinforcement.

51. Schedules of Reinforcement  Fixed ratio: reinforcement of a particular behavior after a specific number of responses.  e.g. After answering a question correctly 5 times, you get a cookie.  Fixed interval: reinforcement of the first particular response made after a specific length of time.  e.g. Only reward students who answer a question every 10 minutes.

52. Schedules of Reinforcement  Variable ratio: reinforcement of a particular behavior after a number of responses that changes at random around an average number.  e.g. Give a psych dollar when students answer a questions correctly following this schedule:  1, 9, 3, 5, 7, 4, 2

53. Schedules of Reinforcement  Variable interval: reinforcement of the first particular response made after a length of time that changes at random around an average time period.  e.g. give out candy when a student answers a question correctly following this schedule:  30 seconds, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 45 seconds, 90 seconds

54. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed (same amount) Variable (different amount) Interval (time) Fixed interval reinforce at a constant time Variable interval reinforce at random times Ratio (# of responses) Fixed ratio reinforce after a constant number of responses Variable ratio reinforce after a random number of responses

55. DO NOW 2.14.2011  Turn your CLASSICAL CONDITIONING projects in to the back tray.  Briefly describe one of the four types of partial reinforcement.  fixed interval  fixed ratio  variable interval  variable ratio

57.  Reward every 30 times a rat presses the button  Fixed-ratio schedule  checking e-mail repeatedly to get the reward of a new message  variable-interval schedule Reinforcement Schedules

58.  People who play slot machines in hopes of winning the jackpot  variable-ratio schedule  people checking for the mail as delivery time gets closer  fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement Schedules

59.  fixed ratio: know how much behavior for reinforcement  fixed interval: know when behavior is reinforced  variable ratio: how much behavior for reinforcement changes  variable interval: when behavior is reinforced changes Reinforcement Schedules

60.  Not traditionally studied by behaviorists. Why? Cognitive Processes in Learning

61.  Cognitive theorists believe that humans and other animals are capable of forming expectations and consciously being motivated by rewards.  Contiguity model: the close time between the CS and the US in classical conditioning was most important for making the connection between the two stimuli and that the CS eventually substituted for the US. The Contingency Model

62.  Contingency model: in classical conditioning, the CS tells the organism that the US will follow. The key is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS.  Blocking effect : when one cannot condition an organism to react to a NS because of a previously learned CS.  Delaying gratification often affects one’s decisions and behaviors. The Contingency Model

63.  learning in the absence of rewards.  Edward Tolman studied rats learning a maze. Latent Learning

64.  The experimental group did not receive an award for going through a maze for 10 days, while the other group did.  The rewarded group made significantly fewer errors navigating the maze.  On day 11, both groups were rewarded.  On day 12, the previously unrewarded group navigated the maze as well as the rewarded group, demonstrating latent learning. Latent Learning

65.  He hypothesized that the previously unrewarded rats formed a cognitive map or mental picture of the maze during the early nonreinforced trials.  Once they were rewarded, they expected future rewards and were motivated to improve. Latent Learning

66.  the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.  Wolfgang Kohler exposed chimpanzees to new learning tasks and concluded that they learn by insight. Insight

67.  A piece of fruit was placed outside a chimp’s cage beyond his reach, with a short stick inside the cage.  After several attempts to reach the fruit using the stick, the chimpanzee stopped trying and stared at the fruit. Insight

68.  Suddenly, he bolted up and used the short stick to reach a longer stick outside the cage, and then used the longer stick to reach the fruit.  NO conditioning had been used. Insight

69.  Suddenly, he bolted up and used the short stick to reach a longer stick outside the cage, and then used the longer stick to reach the fruit.  NO conditioning had been used. Insight

70.  Observational learning: learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model.  e.g. learning a new dance by first watching someone else do the dance.  The cognitive aspect comes in when you think through how the person is moving various body parts and, keeping that in mind, try to do it yourself. Social Learning

71.  Bobo doll study with Albert Bandura. Social Learning

72.  Mirror neurons in the premotor cortex and other portions of the temporal and parietal lobes provide a biological basis for observational learning.  These neurons are active when you perform an action, but also when you observe someone else perform a similar action. Biological Factors in Learning

73.  These neurons transform the sight of someone else’s action into the motor program you would use to do the same thing and to experience similar sensations or emotions, the basis of empathy. Biological Factors in Learning

74.  e.g. conditioned taste aversion  According to some psychologists, conditioned taste aversions are probably adaptive responses of organisms to foods that could sicken or kill them. Preparedness Evolves

75.  Preparedness: through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, and that behaviors contrary to an animal’s tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.  e.g. people are more likely to fear snakes or spiders than flowers or happy faces. Preparedness Evolves

76.  There are biological constraints on the ease with which particular stimuli can be associated with particular responses.  e.g. rats have a tendency to associate nausea and dizziness with tastes, but not with sights or sounds.  Rats also tend to associate pain with sights and sounds, but not with tastes. Preparedness Evolves

77.  a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism.  e.g. wild rats in Skinner boxes sometimes reverted to scratching and biting the lever, instead of pressing it for a reward.  e.g. animal trainers who must stay vigilant even after training their animals because they may revert to dangerous behaviors. Instinctive Drift

78.  Classical conditioning  Classical conditioning paradigm  Classical conditioning learning curve  Strength of conditioning  Classical aversive conditioning  Operant conditioning Questions?

79.  Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning  Operant conditioning training procedures  Operant aversive conditioning  Reinforcers  Operant conditioning training schedules of reinforcement Questions?

80.  Cognitive processes in learning  The contingency model  Latent learning  Insight learning  Social learning Questions?

81.  Biological factors in learning  Preparedness evolves  Instinctive draft Questions?