1. Chapter 21
Social Interaction

2. How do groups affect individual behavior?
21.1 Group Behavior
How do groups affect individual behavior?

3. Social Facilitation We often perform better when people are watching
Not only found in people – animals like dogs and cats work faster in groups
Evaluation Apprehension – our concern about the way others see us may motivate us to improve performance.
Researcher Robert Zajonc (1980) theorized that this is due to increased levels of excitement that occur in group settings.

4. Social Loafing
When working with others toward a common goal, some my not work as hard
More common when others are also not doing their share
Diffusion of responsibility – we feel less responsibility when in a group

5. Risky Shift We tend to take greater risks when we are with a group
This may occur do to the fact that the responsibility for the action will be shared with others
Might explain riots

6. Group Decision Making
Many important decisions are made by groups rather than by individuals
Psychologists have studied factors that influence group decision making and have identified a number of social decision schemes

7. Group Decision Making Majority Wins Scheme Truth Wins Scheme
The group ultimately decides on the choice initially supported by the majority of the group
Applies most often when there are no clear right and wrong answers
Truth Wins Scheme
After learning about the various choices, the best option is selected

8. Group Decision Making Two-Thirds Majority Scheme First-Shift Scheme
Sometimes after two-thirds of a group agree on a choice, the others may go along
First-Shift Scheme
When a group is split 50/50, a single person changing their mind can cause others to follow suit.

9. Polarization
Individuals are often attracted to groups where the members share similar views.
These shared attitudes are likely to grow stronger over time as members discuss and act on these shared beliefs
This dynamic can be positive or negative

10. Group Leadership
Leaders help group members identify goals and establish plans for reaching them
Leaders may be elected or appointed
Many organizations have a clear chain of command
Informal groups may not have official leaders but will likely have some members that are more influential
These leaders tend to be more self-confident, outgoing, and intelligent
There are several different types of leaders

11. Authoritarian Leaders
Exert absolute control over all decisions
Demand obedience from underlings

12. Democratic Leaders
Encourage group members to express and discuss their ideas
Encourage consensus and people making their own decisions
May call for a vote

13. Laissez-Faire Leaders
Encourage members to express and explore their own ideas
Take a less active role in decision making, allowing members to do as they wish (even when making poor decisions)

14. Comparing Leadership Styles
Different leadership styles are effective in different situations
In time of crisis, authoritarian leaders may be best
In other situations, democratic and laissez-faire may be better

15. 21.2 Conformity

16. Importance of Groups
Groups fulfill our needs for belonging, affection and attention
They also offer support in times of need

17. Social Norms Standards of behavior
Explicit norms – spoken or written rules
Implicit norms – unspoken but understood rules
Can be beneficial or harmful

18. Asch’s Studies of Conformity

19. Asch’s Results Many participants confirmed the confederates selections
¾ of people went along with the group at least once even though they knew answers were incorrect

20. Why do People Conform? Central Influences Need for Acceptance
Collectivist societies have high rates of social conformity
They feel uncomfortable when singled out
Need for Acceptance
We conform to social norms of dress and behavior in order to be accepted
People with low self esteem and high social anxiety conform more

21. Conformity – Other Factors
Group size – up to 8
Group is unanimous – even one dissenter reduces likelihood of conformity

22. 21.3 Obedience Most people obey authority figures
Why do some obey immoral commands

23. Milgram Study in obedience 40 men aged 20-50 Asked to shock another
participant when the responded
incorrectly

25. 2/3 of participants continued to the very end
2/3 of participants continued to the very end. Even though the learner shrieked in pain and eventually ceased responding

26. Why do People Conform?
Socialization – We are trained from an early age to obey authority
Foot in the door effect – We tend to give in to major demands once we have given in to minor ones

27. Why do People Conform?
Confusion about attitudes – disturbing or stressful events can cause us to become confused about our beliefs
Buffers – protection from consequences increases likelihood of acting against our beliefs

28. 21.4 Aggression
Actions or words that are meant to hurt other people

29. Biological View
Some aggressive responses seem to involve the brain and hormones
Stimulation of hypothalamus
Hormone testosterone (higher levels often coincide with higher aggression)
May have had survival value

30. Psychoanalytic View Aggressive urges are normal
We repress them due to fear of rejection
Catharsis - Freud felt we should vent these feelings in less harmful ways that didn’t physically harm someone
It is unclear whether or not catharsis actually decreases or increases aggression

31. Cognitive View
Behavior is influenced by peoples values, the ways in which they interpret events and the choices they make
Frustration and anger make us aggressive but we don’t act without thought

32. Learning View Aggressive behavior is reinforced and therefore repeated
Reinforced when force allows us to get our way
In sports, aggression aids in winning
We may observe the behavior on TV and in movies

33. Learning – TV and Violence
Controversial topic
Viewers exposed to enormous amounts of violence
More tv watching leads to increased aggression
May increase aggression because it models behavior and lessens inhibitions

34. Sociocultural View
Cultures that promote independence and competitiveness have increases aggression
Cultures that place more value on the group foster cooperation and have lower levels of aggression

35. 21.5 Altruism
Unselfish concern for the welfare of other people

36. Explaining altruism Might be linked to genetics
Might have evolutionary value especially if altruistic behavior is directed towards family members
Some believe that there is no evidence for a genetic connection

37. Factors Promoting Altruism
State of Mind – people in a good mood are more likely to help others
People with problems – their troubles might make them more sensitive to others troubles
Empathy
Competency - if you have the necessary skills for the situation you are more likely to help
Sense of responsibility

38. Factors Inhibiting Altruism
Uncertainty – if they are unsure help is needed people are less likely to act
Fear – of harm or social blunder
Not knowing what to do

39. Bystander Effect
Chances that people will help are influenced by the number of people present
People alone are likely to help
The more people present, the less likely people are to render aid
Might be due to the diffusion of responsibility

40. Study Darley and Latane (1968)
Office workers on the phone with a “coworker” when he called for help and made sounds of distress
Single witnesses helped 85% of the time
People who thought that 4 others heard the pleas for help only responded 31% of the time