1. Peer Influence  Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence  Friendship  Play and Leisure  Aging and the Social World  Sociocultural Influences

2. Peer Group Functions Peers — individuals about the same age or maturity level Peer groups provide source of information and comparison about world outside the family Peer influences and evaluations can be negative or positive Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

3. Parent Influences on Peer Relations Choice of neighborhoods, churches, schools Recommend strategies to handle disputes or become less shy Encourage children to be tolerant or resist peer pressure Provide emotional base from which to explore peer relations Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

4. Developmental Changes Early Childhood ◦ Frequency of peer interaction increases Middle/Late Childhood ◦ Children spend increasing time in peer interaction Average time spent ◦ 10% of time spent with peers at age 2 ◦ 20% of time spent with peers at age 4 ◦ 40% of time spent with peers during ages 7-11 Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

5. Social Cognition Thoughts about social matters ◦ 5 steps in processing information  Decode social cues  Interpret  Search for response  Select optimal response  Enact ◦ Affects ability to get along with peers Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

6. Emotional Regulation and Peer Relations Greater peer rejection for moody, negative children Emotional self-regulation enhances children’s social competence Sociometric status: extent child is liked or disliked by peer group Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

7. Peer Statuses Popular Average Neglected Frequently nominated as a best friend; rarely disliked by peers Rejected Controversial Receive average number of positive and negative nominations from peers Infrequently nominated as a best friend but not disliked by peers Infrequently nominated as a best friend; actively disliked by peers Frequently nominated as someone's best friend and as being disliked Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

8. Neglected and Rejected Children Neglected children: ◦ Low rates of peer interaction ◦ Often described as shy Rejected children ◦ Have more serious adjustment problems ◦ Less likely to engage in classroom participation ◦ Show a desire to avoid school ◦ More likely to be lonely Not all rejected children are aggressive Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

9. Bullying Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent Significant numbers victimized ◦ Boys and younger middle school students ◦ Victims of bullies reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends ◦ Those who did the bullying more likely to have low grades, smoke and drink alcohol Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

10. Bullying Behaviors Among U.S. Youth Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

11. Bullying To reduce bullying ◦ Older peers serve as monitors and intervene ◦ Develop school-wide rules and sanctions ◦ Form friendship groups for victims ◦ Spread anti-bullying message to community ◦ Parents reinforce and model positive behaviors ◦ Identify bullies and victims early ◦ Provide professional help for bully and victim Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

12. Gender and Peer Relations Gender composition ◦ From age 3, children prefer same-sex groups Group size ◦ From age 6, boys prefer larger groups Interaction in same-sex groups ◦ Boys: organized group games, rough-and- tumble ◦ Girls: collaborative discourse Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

13. Adolescent Peer Relations Peer pressure - peers play powerful roles Cliques and crowds — to be liked and included Peers play important role in individual development in all cultures Cross-cultural comparisons Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

14. Conformity to Antisocial Peer Standards Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

15. Cliques and Crowds Cliques ◦ Average 5 to 6 people ◦ Usually same sex, age ◦ Formed from shared activities, friendship Crowds ◦ Larger than cliques ◦ Usually formed based on reputation ◦ May not spend much time together Friendship

16. Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Dunphy’s Progression of Peer Group Relations in Adolescence

17. Six Functions of Friendship Companionship Stimulation Physical support Ego support Social comparison Affection/intimacy ◦ intimacy in friendship — self- disclosure and sharing of private thoughts Friendship

18. Friendship during Childhood Children use friends as cognitive and social resources Not all friends and friendships are equal ◦ Supportive friendships advantageous ◦ Coercive, conflict-ridden friendships not Friends generally similar — age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors Friendship

19. Strategies for Making Friends Inappropriate Be psychologically aggressive Present oneself negatively Behave antisocially Friendship Appropriate Initiate interaction Be nice Behave prosocially Show respect Give social support

20. Friendship during Adolescence Need for intimacy intensifies Quality of friendship more strongly linked to feelings of well-being Important sources of support Mixed-age friendships Friends are active partners in building a sense of identity Friendship

21. Developmental Changes in Self- Disclosing Conversations Friendship

22. Friendship during Adolescence Girls more intimate with friends than boys, more open in self-disclosures More risk of delinquent behavior when friends are older, boys focus on power and excitement Early maturers more at risk for delinquent behavior Friendship

23. Adult Friendship Family relationships are obligatory, ascribed ◦ Cannot choose to replace parents and siblings ◦ Family members from different generations Friendship optional, chosen ◦ Can select and replace friends ◦ Friends are often similar in age Friendship

24. Adult Friendship Based on similarities: occupational sttus, ethnicity, age, marital status, income, education, gender, and religion Differences between family and friends ◦ Family is obligatory; friendships optional ◦ Family is ascribed; friendships chosen ◦ Family spanned generations; friends have similarities Friendship

25. Adult Friendship Gender Differences ◦ Women  More close friends  More intimate; talk more ◦ Men  More competitive  Engage in activities, especially outdoors ◦ More cross-gender friendships than childhood but still prefer same-gender Friendship

26. Friendship in Late Adulthood Important role; tend to narrow their social network Choose close friends over new friends Gender differences ◦ Women: more depressed without a best friend; no change in desire for friends ◦ Men: decreased desire for new and close friends in older adulthood Friendship

27. Childhood Functions of play ◦ Health ◦ Affiliation with peers and constraints ◦ Cognitive development ◦ Exploration ◦ Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts  Play therapy Play and Leisure

28. Parten’s Classic Study of Play Play and Leisure Onlooker Parallel Solitary Unoccupied Child not engaging in play as commonly understood; might stand in one spot Associative Cooperative Child watches other children play Child plays separately from others, but in manner that mimics their play Play that involves social interaction with little or no organization Play that involves social interaction in group with sense of organized activity Child plays alone, independently of others

29. Types of Play Play and Leisure Pretense/ Symbolic Social Practice Sensorimotor Infants derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes Games Repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned Activities for pleasure, has rules, involves competition, turn-taking, etc. Occurs when child transforms physical environment into symbol Involves social interactions with peers Constructive Self-regulated creation of products or solutions; a frequent form of play

30. Leisure Pleasant times after work or school when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their choosing U.S. adolescents spend more time than those in other industrialized countries ◦ Most time in unstructured leisure activities ◦ Most time in voluntary structured activities Play and Leisure

31. Leisure in Adulthood Many adults do not engage in activities Mid-life changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure Adults at midlife need to begin preparing psychologically for retirement Play and Leisure

32. Social Theories of Aging Disengagement theory Activity theory Social breakdown- reconstruction theory To cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society The more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives Breakdown begins by negative views of older adults, ends by labeling self; social reconstruction brought about by viewing older adults as competent Aging and the Social World

33. Stereotyping of Older Adults Ageism — prejudice against other people because of age, especially prejudice against older adults Personal consequences of negative stereotyping can be serious Aging and the Social World

34. Social Support and Social Integration Social convoy model of social relations — go through life embedded in personal network of individuals that give social support ◦ Helps those of all ages cope ◦ Improves mental and physical health ◦ Linked to reduced symptoms of disease ◦ Linked to longevity ◦ Emotionally positive contact lowers depression Aging and the Social World

35. The Stress of Caring for Older Adults Individuals with long-term caregiving responsibilities are at risk for ◦ Clinical depression ◦ Compromised immune systems Aging and the Social World

36. Successful Aging Positive dimensions often ignored Proper diet, technology, medical advances, and active lifestyle prolong and enhance quality of life Related to perceived control over one’s environment (self-efficacy) Aging and the Social World

37. Culture Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation ◦ Ethnocentrism — tendency to favor one’s own group over other groups Global interdependence is inescapable reality ◦ All are citizens of the world ◦ Better understanding effective interactions Sociocultural Influences

38. Individualism and Collectivism Individualism — giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships Sociocultural Influences

39. American and Chinese Self-Conceptions Sociocultural Influences

40. Rites of Passage Ceremonies or rituals that mark an individual’s transition from one status to another, especially into adulthood Some are elaborate Some are abrupt entry into adulthood Religious and social groups use initiations Absence of clear-cut adult rites in U.S. Sociocultural Influences

41. Influences on Rites of Passage The media and culture ◦ Reduced parents’ control of information ◦ Greatest influence in the U.S. Television – greater impact on children ◦ Positive and negative effects ◦ Violence and aggression, video games Computer and the internet ◦ Highest risks to children and adolescents ◦ Effects on aging adults Sociocultural Influences

42. Aging and Culture Older persons ◦ Have valuable knowledge ◦ Control key family/community resources ◦ Remain useful and valued as long as possible ◦ Have role continuity throughout yje life span ◦ Engage in age-related role changes ◦ Is integrated into the extended family ◦ Get greatest respect in collectivistic cultures Sociocultural Influences

43. What Is Socioeconomic Status? SES ◦ Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics ◦ Number depends on community’s size, complexity ◦ Low SES and middle SES  Each could have many subcategories  SES variations in neighborhoods, schools ◦ Each level views education differently Sociocultural Influences

44. Family Socioeconomic Variations Higher SES parents: ◦ Stress ‘initiative’ and delayed gratification ◦ Children are nearly equal participants in home rules, etc. ◦ Less likely to use physical punishment ◦ Less directive, more conversational Sociocultural Influences Lower SES parents: –Stress conformity –Exercise authority –Use physical punishment –More directive, use less conversation with children

45. Psychological Ramifications of Poverty Poverty: U.S. rates continue to increase ◦ Tends to follow ethnic lines ◦ Highest for children of all industrialized nations Psychological effects of poverty ◦ Powerless, vulnerable, no financial resources ◦ Inadequate housing, at-risk environment, etc. ◦ Long term effects: chronic health problems Sociocultural Influences

46. Who is Poor? Women — feminization of poverty ◦ Over 1/3 of single mothers; 10% of single fathers Families and poverty ◦ Economic pressure linked with parenting ◦ Benefits to parents help children Poverty, aging, and ethnicity ◦ 10-12% overall, more among women and ethnic minorities; more than 25% of older women ◦ Ethnic diversity continues to increase Sociocultural Influences

47. Percentage of Youth Under 18 Who are Living in Distressed Neighborhoods Sociocultural Influences

48. Immigration Relatively high rates — contribute to U.S. ethnic diversity Special stressors often experienced ◦ Language barriers ◦ Separation from support network ◦ SES changes ◦ Preserving ethnic identity versus acculturation ◦ Cultural value conflicts within family Sociocultural Influences

49. U.S. Adolescents Aged 10-19, 2000-2100 Sociocultural Influences

50. Ethnicity Ethnicity and socioeconomic status ◦ Difficult to separate influences of ethnicity and SES ◦ Minorities overrepresented in lower SES may cause exaggeration of negative ethnic influences ◦ Links between acculturation and adolescent problems Sociocultural Influences

51. Ethnicity Ethnicity and families ◦ Families vary by size, structure, composition, levels of income and education, kinship networks, and how family monitors/regulates behaviors ◦ More single families in some groups ◦ Ethnic minority parents are less educated ◦ Children experience double disadvantage  Do not escape prejudice and discrimination  Stressful effects of poverty felt Sociocultural Influences

52. Differences and Diversity Recognizing differences important to getting along in diverse world Differences among ethnic groups too often conceived by majority as deficits of minorities ◦ Damaging to minorities Diversity within ethnic groups Sociocultural Influences

53. Ethnicity and Aging Double jeopardy - ageism and racism Health and wealth decrease faster for older ethnic minorities than for elderly white Americans Coping mechanisms ◦ Extended family networks ◦ Ethnic neighborhoods and groups ◦ Churches and organizations Sociocultural Influences