1. Chapter 13 Sex Differences and Gender-Role Development

2. INTRODUCTION
Sex – person’s biological identity
Chromosomes; physical manifestations of identity; hormonal influences
Gender – person’s social and cultural identity as male or female
Gender typing – process of acquiring a gender identity and the motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate for their biological sex

3. CATEGORIZING MALES AND FEMALES: GENDER ROLE STANDARDS
Gender role standard – value, motive, or behavior considered more appropriate for members of one sex than the other
Expressive role – female – kind, nurturing, cooperative, sensitive to others’ needs
Instrumental role – male – dominant, assertive, independent, and competitive

4. Table 13.1 Sex Differences in the Socialization of Five Attributes in 110 Societies. NOTE: The percentages for each attribute do not add to 100 because some of the societies did not place differential pressures on boys and girls with respect to that attribute. For example, 18% of the societies for which pertinent data were available did not differentiate between the sexes in the socialization of nurturance. SOURCE: Adapted from BARRY, BACON, & CHILD, 1957.

5. SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES
Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes
Verbal Ability – girls are superior
Visual/Spatial Abilities – boys are superior
Evident by 4, persists across life span
Mathematical Abilities
In adolescence, boys better at arithmetic reasoning
Girls better at computational skills

6. Figure 13.1 A spatial task for which sex differences in performance have been found. FROM LINN & PETERSEN, 1985.

7. SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES
Aggression
Beginning at age 2, boys are more physically and verbally aggressive
Girls more likely to display covert aggression

8. SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES
Other Sex Differences
Activity level – boys are more physically active (even before birth)
Fear, timidity, and risk-taking – girls are more fearful, timid, and take fewer risks
No difference in cognitive impulsivity
Developmental vulnerability – boys are more vulnerable to prenatal and perinatal hazards and disease

9. SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES
Emotional expressivity / sensitivity
Beginning in toddlerhood
Boys express more anger
Girls express most other emotions more frequently
Compliance – girls are more compliant

10. SOME FACTS AND FICTIONS ABOUT SEX DIFFERENCES
Conclusions
Differences reflect group averages
Differences are small
Differences are most apparent at the extremes
Males and females are much more psychologically similar than they are different

11. Figure 13.2 These two distributions of scores-one for males, one for females-give some idea of the size of the gap between the sexes in abilities for which sex differences are consistently found. Despite a small difference in average performance, the scores of males and females overlap considerably. APAPTED FROM HYDE, FENNEMA, & LAMON, 1990.

12. CULTURAL MYTHS
Most gender-role stereotypes are “cultural myths”
No basis in fact
Due to well-ingrained cognitive schemas
Interpret and distort behavior

13. CULTURAL MYTHS
Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex Differences in Ability/Vocational Opportunity?
Self-fulfilling prophecy actually promotes sex differences in cognitive performance
Home Influences
Parents expect sons to outperform daughters in math
Son’s successes are due to ability, daughter’s due to hard work

14. CULTURAL MYTHS
Home Influences, continued
Children internalize parent’s views, boys become self-confident
Girls lose interest in math, due to perceived lack of ability
Scholastic Influences
Teachers have similar views affecting children in a similar manner

15. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Development of the Gender Concept
By age 2 ½ to 3, accurately label oneself as a boy or girl
5 to 7 years – gender is unchanging

16. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes
Present at 2 to 3 years, once children can label pictures of children as boys or girls
3 to 7 – view gender-role standards as rules
8 to 9 – more flexible, distinction between moral rules and gender-role standards

17. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Cultural Influences
Collectivist societies tend to encourage conforming to gender-role standards
Adolescent Thinking About Gender Stereotypes
Less flexible again; increased pressure to conform – gender intensification
Later in high school, may be more flexible again

18. Figure 13.3 Children’s rankings of the wrongness of gender-role transgressions (such as a boy’s wearing nail polish) and violations of moral rules (such as pushing another child from a swing). Notice that children of all ages deplore immoral acts but that only kindergartners and adolescents view gender-role violations as wrong. Elementary school children come to think about gender-role standards in a more flexible way than they did earlier in life, but adolescents become concerned about the psychological implications of deviating from one’s “proper” gender identity. ADAPTED FROM STODDARD & TURIEL, 1985.

19. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Development of Gender-Typed Behavior
14 to 22 months – prefer gender appropriate toys
Gender Segregation
2 years, girls prefer playing with girls
3 years, boys prefer playing with boys
Due to differences in play styles
Cognitive and social-cognitive development

20. Figure Two- to 3-year-old toddlers already prefer playmates of their own sex. Boys are much more social with boys than with girls, whereas girls are more outgoing with girls than with boys. ADAPTED FROM JACKLIN & MACCOBY, 1978.

21. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Sex Differences in Gender-Typed Behavior
Males have greater status
Males feel stronger pressure to adhere to gender appropriate codes
Most girls do comply with prescriptions for the feminine role by adolescence
Be attractive to opposite sex
Concern of others evaluations

22. Table 13.2 Percentages of Boys and Girls Who Requested Popular “Masculine” and “Feminine” Items from Santa Claus. SOURCE: Adapted from Richardson & Simpson, 1982.

23. DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN GENDER TYPING
Subcultural Variations in Gender-Typing
Middle class adolescents hold more flexible gender-role attitudes then low SES peers
African American children hold less stereotyped views of women than European American children
Both due to differences in education and family life

24. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Evolutionary Theory
Males and females face different evolutionary pressures
Natural selection created fundamental differences in male and female roles
Females need to be nurturing
Males need spatial skills for hunting

25. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Criticisms of the Evolutionary Approach
Applies to differences that apply cross-culturally
Ignores differences limited to cultures or historical periods
Social roles hypothesis
Cultures assign roles based on gender
Socialization practices

26. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Money & Ehrhardt’s Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation and Development
Inherit X or Y chromosome from father
If Y, testes secrete testosterone and MIS
Resulting in male genitals
At birth, social factors become important
Child is labeled by society
At puberty sex characteristics and urges combine with label

27. Figure 13.5 Critical events in Money and Ehrhardt’s biosocial theory of sex typing. FROM MONEY & EHRHARDT, 1972.

28. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Evidence for Biological Influences on Gender-Role Development
Genetic influences
50% of the differences in masculine, 0-20% of the differences in feminine self-concepts
Strong masculine self-concept and experience with spatial toys increases abilities

29. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Hormonal influences
If females are exposed to excess androgen prenatally, result is masculinized external genitalia
Alters play behavior
Increases interest in same-sex relationships
Influences career and family choices

30. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Evidence for Social-Labeling Influences
Surgery and gender reassignment are generally successful for androgenized females
Prior to 18 months of age
After age 3, very difficult
Masculine gender typing
Labeling of self as a boy

31. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Cultural influences
Mead’s study of tribal societies
Arapesh – both males and females were taught to be expressive
Mundugumor – both genders were taught to be “masculine”
Tchambuli – from Western standards, males more feminine, females more masculine

32. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
A psychobiosocial viewpoint
Prenatal hormone exposure influences brain development
Creates different sensitivities for males and females
Coupled with others’ beliefs, provides more exposure to gender consistent materials

33. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Males become gender typed as they identify with their father to resolve the Oedipus complex
Fathers encourage feminine behavior in females (modeled after mother)
Lack of research support

34. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Social Learning Theory
Direct tuition – children are encouraged and rewarded for gender-appropriate behaviors
Parents begin the process
Siblings and peers reinforce it

35. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Observational learning – children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models
Also important is the label attached to the attitude or behavior
Same-sex models become more important at ages 5 to 7, when gender is unchanging aspect of the self
Media influences

36. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Children first establish a stable gender identity
Basic gender identity:
By age 3, label themselves as a boy or girl
Gender stability:
Occurs next

37. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Gender consistency:
By 5-7, gender is consistent across situations
After achieving gender consistency
Children actively seek out same-sex models to determine how to act

38. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Gender-typing begins well before children acquire a mature gender identity
Gender reassignment is very difficult after age 3

39. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Halverson)
Children acquire a basic gender identity
Motivates child to learn about the sexes and create gender schemas
Begin as simple in-group/out-group schemas
Also create an own-sex schema
Schemas serve as scripts for processing social information

40. Figure 13. 6 Gender-schema theory in action
Figure 13.6 Gender-schema theory in action. A young girl classifies new information according to an in-group/out-group schema as either “for boys” or “for girls.” Information about boys’ toys and activities is ignored, but information about toys and activities for girls in relevant to the self and so is added to an ever-larger own-sex schema. ADAPTED FROM MARTIN & HALVERSON, 1987.

41. THEORIES OF GENDER-TYPING AND GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT
An Integrative Theory
Biological theories account for major biological developments
Social-theories account for differential reinforcement processes
Cognitive development explains the growth of categorization skills
Gender schemas are also important as are models as children age

42. Table 13.3 An Overview of the Gender-Typing Process from the Perspective of an Integrative Theorist.

43. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY?
Historically, masculinity and femininity were at opposite ends of a single dimensions
Androgyny – sees them as 2 separate dimensions, allowing individuals to be high in both masculine and feminine traits

44. Figure 13.7 Categories of sex-role orientation based on viewing masculinity and femininity as separate dimensions of personality.

45. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY?
Do Androgynous People Really Exist?
In a college student sample
33% were masculine men or feminine women
30% were androgynous
27% undifferentiated or gender-type reversed

46. Table 13.4 Sample Items from a Gender-Role Inventory for Grade-school Children. Source: Adapted from Boldizar, 1991.

47. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY?
Are There Advantages to Being Androgynous?
More highly adaptable to the situation
Higher self-esteem
More likeable
Perceived as better adjusted
The masculine traits are more important for adjustment

48. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY: A PRESCRIPTION FOR THE 21st CENTURY?
Applications: On Changing Gender Role Attitudes and Behavior
Parents must teach that biological sex is unimportant other than for reproduction
Delay exposure to gender stereotypes
Interventions work best with younger children
Programs work best if the adult in charge is male