1. Personality & Individuality

2. Psychological Testing
All psychological tests have one characteristic that makes them both fascinating and remarkably practical – they try to make it possible to find out a great deal about a person in a very short period of time.

3. Psychological Testing
Tests can be useful in predicting how well a person might do in a particular career; in assessing one’s individual desires, interests, and attitudes; and in revealing psychological problems.
These tests can also show how an individual compares to others.
In some cases, tests can even be used to predict future behavior (though these are very controversial.)

4. Psychological Testing
There are also some dangers to testing.
One of these dangers is that we tend to forget that tests are merely tools for measuring and predicting human behavior.
In some cases, society starts to think of these tests (such as IQ tests), are the FINAL fact, but nothing could be further from the truth.

5. Test Reliability
Reliability: The ability of a test to give the same results under similar conditions.
There are 3 basic ways of determining a tests reliability:
1. Test-Retest Reliability: If a person retakes the test or takes a similar test within a short time after the first testing, does he or she receive approximately the same score?
2. Interscorer Reliability: Does the test yield the same results when scored at different times by different people?
3. Split-Half Reliability: Randomly dividing the test items in half and scoring each half separately. The two scores should be approximately the same.

6. Test Validity Any test may be reliable but still not valid.
Validity: The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.
For example; a test that consists primarily of Spanish vocabulary lists will not measure ability for engineering. A history test will not measure general learning ability. A test you take in physical education will not measure your ability to do math, etc…

7. Test Validity
Determining the validity of a test is more complex than assessing its reliability.
One of the main methods for measuring validity is to find out how well a test predicts performance – Predictive validity.
For example; a group of psychologists design a test to measure management ability. They ask questions about management systems, attitudes towards employees, and other relevant information.
Will the people who score high on the test really make good managers?

8. Standardization Tests must be standardized.
Standardization refers to two things.
First, standardized tests must be administered and scored the same way every time.

9. Establishing Norms
Once a test result is obtained, the examiner must translate the score into something useful.
Suppose you score a 32 out of 50 on a test…What does that score mean?
Well, if it is a reliable test, it means that you should be able to understand a certain amount of information on every test, regardless of the way in which it is written.
In other words, this score should predict how you will perform at a given level.

10. Establishing Norms
When psychologists design a test to be used in a variety of settings, they usually set up a scale for comparison by establishing norms.
This is usually done by transforming raw test scores into a percentile system.
What is a percentile system?
Percentile System: Ranking of test scores that indicates the ratio of scores lower and higher than a given score.
In other words, you are all ranked from highest to lowest…Congratulations.

11. Establishing Norms
In order to make comparisons, tests are first given to a large number of people in a sample group – let’s say 6th graders or army privates.
Percentiles are then established on the basis of the scores that these people receive. (so, in other words, tests get harder as more people take them.)
These percentiles are called “norms.”
Norms: Standard of comparison for test results developed by giving the test to large, well-defined, groups of people.

12. Establishing Norms
Your percentile on an aptitude test, such as Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT), reflects your standing among people of your age and grade who have taken these exams.
Though, you should remember that norms are not standards, they merely represent what the majority of a given group will do.
Word…

13. Intelligence Testing
Psychologists do not agree on the meaning of intelligence.
Yet, the most common definition for intelligence is…
Intelligence: The ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior, and to adapt to new situations.
Yet, others believe that intelligence is what allows you to do well on intelligence tests and in school.
The concept of intelligence however, continues to be difficult to pin down.

14. Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman proposed his two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904.
Two-Factor Theory: Proposes that two factors contribute to an individual’s intelligence.
According to Spearman’s theory, two factors contribute to a person’s intelligence.
The first factor “g,” represents a person’s general intelligence.
This involves a person’s ability to perform complex mental work, such as problem solving.

15. Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
A second factor, “s,” represents a person’s specific mental abilities, such as verbal or math skills.
Spearman believed that every individual had a certain level of general intelligence.
Many critics argue that “g” does not measure many other kinds of mental abilities such as motor, musical, or creative abilities.
These critics argue that intelligence cannot be reduced to just “g” and expressed by a single IQ score.

16. Thurston’s Theory of Intelligence
A major opponent of Spearman’s theory was L.L. Thurstone (1938).
After testing a large number of people on more than 50 different ability tests , Thurstone concluded that there was no evidence for the general intelligence that Spearman had identified.
Instead, Thurstone proposed that intelligence is composed of seven primary mental abilities.
He believed that a person’s intelligence needed to be a measurement of all seven mental abilities and not jut a measurement of one factor.

17. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Psychologist Howard Gardner rejected the traditional idea of intelligence as primarily the ability to think logically.
Gardner believes this view is inadequate because it omits many important skills.
Gardner argues for a broader perspective that includes eight types of intelligence.

18. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
1. Verbal/Linguistic Ability: The ability to utilize language. Skill at learning, using, and understanding language.

19. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
2. Logical Mathematical Skills: Ability to process and compute logical problems and equations. Skill at solving algebra problems.

20. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
3. Spatial ability: The ability to find your way around the environment and to form mental images of it. The ability to comprehend shapes and images into three dimensions. Skill at putting puzzles together or molding sculptures.

21. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
4. Musical Ability: The ability to create and receive pitch and rhythm patterns. In other words, skills at performing and comprehending music.

22. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
5. Body – Kinesthetic: Skill at fine motor movements required for tasks such as gem cutting, surgery, or athletics. Basically, a sense of how one’s body should act and react in a physically demanding situation.

23. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
6. Interpersonal Skills: Involves understanding the feelings of others. The ability to interact with and understand others and to interpret their behavior. Skill at gauging others’ moods and motivations.

24. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
7. Intrapersonal Skills: Knowledge of oneself. Skill at using self-esteem, self enhancement, and strength of character to solve internal problems.

25. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
8. Naturalist: The ability to identify and classify patterns and relationships in natural surroundings. Skill at distinguishing differences among large numbers of similar objects.

26. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Critics of Gardner’s theory argue that some of what Gardner called “intelligence” are really just skills.
For instance, someone with exceptional musical abilities or bodily kinesthetic abilities is really just talented.
These critics claim that intelligence and talent (or skill) are two different things.
Intelligence
VS.
Skill

28. Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
In 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed the Triarchic Theory.
Triarchic Theory: Proposes that intelligence can be divided into 3 ways of processing information.

29. Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
The first way is using analytical thinking skills, or the ability to solve problems. These kinds of skills are the ones that are traditionally measured on intelligence tests.
The second way is applying creative thinking to solving problems and dealing with new situations.
The third way is using practical thinking skills to help adjust to and cope with one’s environment.

30. Emotional Intelligence
Another type of intelligence is called emotional intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence: Includes four major aspects of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.
One: The ability to perceive and express emotions accurately and appropriately.
Two: The ability to use emotions while thinking.
Three: The ability to understand emotions and use the knowledge effectively.
Four: The ability to regulate one’s emotions to promote personal growth.

31. Emotional Intelligence
This view of intelligence has intrigued many psychologists.
Major proponents of this view have linked emotional intelligence to success in the workplace.
Some psychologists, however, argue that emotional intelligence is simply a measurement of extraversion.

32. The Development of Intelligence Tests
Among the most widely used and widely disputed tests in the United States and Canada today are those that are designed to measure intelligence in terms of an IQ score.
Are they fair?
Do they actually judge a person’s intelligence?
What makes you intelligent?

33. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Binet’s intelligence test has been revised many times since he developed it.
This test groups test items by age level.
To stimulate and maintain the child’s interest, several tasks are included, ranging from defining words to drawing pictures and explaining events in daily life.
Children are tested one at a time.
Examiners must carry out standardized instructions while putting the child at ease, getting him to pay attention, and encouraging him to try as hard as he can.

34. The IQ, or Intelligence Quotient
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Standardized measure of intelligence based on a scale in which 100 is average.
In other words… IQ = Mental Age X 100
Chronological Age
- So an 8-year-old child who scored at the mental age of 8 would have an IQ of 100.

35. The IQ or Intelligence Quotient
Although the basic principles behind the calculation of IQ remain, scores are figured in a slightly different manner today.
Researchers assign a score of 100 to the average performance at any given age.
Then, IQ values are assigned to all the other test scores for this age group.
If you have an IQ of 100, for example, this means that 50 percent of the test takers who are your age performed worse than you.

36. The Uses and Meaning of IQ Scores
In general, the norms for intelligence tests are established in such a way that most people score near 100.
This means that about 95% of people score between 70 and 130.
Only a little more than 2% score at or above 130.
Those who score below a 70 have traditionally been considered as mentally handicapped.

37. The Uses and Meaning of IQ Scores
More specific categories include:
Mildly handicapped but educable (55-69)
Moderately handicapped but trainable (40-54)
Severely handicapped (25-39)
Profoundly handicapped (0-25)

38. So, What do IQ scores mean?
What exactly do IQ tests measure?
IQ scores seam to be the most useful when related to school achievement.
They are quite accurate in predicting which people will do well in schools, colleges, and universities.
Generally, IQ tests measure your ability to solve certain types of problems…Not problems in general.
Is this good?

39. Heredity and Cultural Bias
Hereditability: The degree to which a characteristic is related to inherited genetic factors.
In other words, is your intelligence nature or nurture? Discuss…ok, we have talked about it before, so let’s move on.
So what does Intelligence, Heredity, and where you come from have to do with Cultural Bias.

40. Cultural Bias
A major criticism of intelligence tests is that they have a cultural bias.
Cultural Bias: An aspect of an intelligence test in which the wording used in questions may be more familiar to people of one social group than to another group.

41. Cultural Bias Example:
On one intelligence test, the correct response to the question, “what would you do if you were sent to buy a loaf of bread and the grocer said he did not have anymore”…Was “try another store.”
A significant number of minority students from lower income areas however, responded that they would just “go home.”
When questioned why the students marked what was deemed to be the wrong answer, they stated that “there was no other store in their neighborhood.”

42. Warning: This has NO point!

43. Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and Interests
Aptitude Tests: Estimates the probability that a person will be successful in learning a specific skill.
Test results are used to determine whether a person shows promise for each of a large number of occupations.

44. Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and Interests
Achievement Tests: Measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area.
Such tests not only enable an instructor to assess a student’s knowledge, but they also help students assess their progress for themselves.

45. Interest Inventories
Interest Inventory: Measure’s a person’s preferences and attitudes in a wide variety of activities to identify areas of likely success.
The more a person’s interest patterns correspond to those of people in a certain occupation, the more likely that person is to enjoy and succeed in that profession.
The purpose of these tests is to help people find the career that is right for them.

46. Interest Inventories
It is important to note that although interest inventories can be of great value to people who are undecided about the career path they should take, they provide only one source of information.
Along with interests, a student’s abilities should be taken into account.
A person should not make an important decision, such as that of a career, on the basis of a test.

47. Personality Testing
Personality Tests: Assesses an individuals characteristics and identifies possible problems and psychological disorders.
These tests also predict how a person might behave in the future.
Some of these tests are objective tests, while others are projective tests.
So what does that mean?

48. Personality Testing
Objective Test: A limited, or forced choice test in which a person must select one of several answers.
The Myers-Briggs test you took.
See the Handout!

49. Personality Testing
Projective Test: An unstructured test in which a person is asked to respond freely, giving his or her own interpretation of various ambiguous stimuli.
An example of this test is the Rorschach test.

50. Theories of Personality

51. It’s in the Personality
Katie and Christy both failed their semester examinations in psychology, but they reacted in very different ways.
When Katie first saw her grade, she felt sick to her stomach and had to fight back tears. She rushed home, and shut herself up in her room to lie in bed, stare at the ceiling, and feel inadequate.
Christy, on the other hand, was not upset at all. She ran to the cafeteria to join her friends and make loud jokes about the stupid questions on the test.
Why did Katie and Christy react so differently to a similar situation?

52. Soooo….
The reason that the 2 girls acted so differently is that they each have a different “personality.”
Personality: The consistent, enduring, and unique characteristics of a person.

53. Sigmund Freud and the Unconscious
It was Sigmund Freud who first suggested that the phrase “a slip of the tongue,” was actually much more than that…
Freud believed that there was something behind these “mistakes,” even though people claimed they were just accidental and quickly corrected themselves.
Freud was the first modern psychologist to suggest that every person has a large unconscious.

54. Freud and the Unconscious
Unconscious: The part of the mind that contains material of which we are unaware but that strongly influences conscious processes and behaviors.
For Freud, these experiences include feelings and thoughts as well as actual events.
As we have stated before, Freud believed that all of these unconscious thoughts and desires directly effected the ways in which people think and act.

55. The Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud explained human personality by saying that it was a kind of energy system, like a steam engine.
According to Freud’s theory, the “Id” is the reservoir or container of the instinctual and biological urges.
Id: The part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts, and repressed material.

56. More about the Id…
According to Freud, the “Id” is the lustful, impulsive, fun, or drive-ridden part of the unconscious.
Example: Cookie Monster… “Me want Cookie.”
You are searching immediate gratification and pleasure from an action or desire, regardless of the consequences.

57. Mr. Ego
The personality process that is mostly conscious is called the “ego.”
Ego: The part of the personality that is in touch with reality and strives to meet the demands of the “Id” and the “Superego” in socially acceptable ways.
So, let’s say your “Id” says… “give me cookie now.” Your “ego” would recognize that the body needs food, and will continue to need food in the future.

58. The Superego
Suppose you thought of stealing the food from someone else.
Your “superego” is the part of your personality that would stop you.
Superego: The part of the personality that is the source of conscience and counteracts the socially undesirable impulses of the “id.”
In other words, think of it as your “conscience.”

59. Confrontations The “Id” represents what a person wants to do.
The “Ego” plans what a person can do.
The “Superego” advocates what a person should do.
____________________________________________
The “Id” and the “Superego” frequently come into conflict with one another.
Because neither is concerned with reality, they may both come into conflict with the outside world as well.
Freud saw the “Ego” as the part of the person that must satisfy the “Id” without offending the “Superego.”

61. Defense Mechanisms What is a defense mechanism?
Defense Mechanism: Certain specific means by which the ego unconsciously protects itself against unpleasant impulses or circumstances.
Freud believed that these defense mechanisms stem from the unconscious part of the “ego.”
According to Freud, these defense mechanisms are necessary for psychological well-being.
They can help to relieve confusion and stress.

62. Defense Mechanisms
If you explained your poor performance on the last test by saying, “the test questions were bad; they didn’t make sense,” rather than admitting that you did not study for the test, you are practicing rationalization.
Rationalization: making up acceptable excuses for behaviors that cause us to feel anxious.

63. Defense Mechanisms
When a person has painful memories and unacceptable thoughts and motives that cause the ego too much anxiety, he or she may push those thoughts out of their consciousness down into the unconscious.
The person simply pushes the disturbing thoughts and memories out of awareness without ever realizing it.
This is called Repression!

64. Defense Mechanisms Denial…Not just a river in Egypt!
Denial: refusing to accept the reality of something that makes you anxious.
For example: it is a stormy and frightening night, and the local television and radio announcers are advising that citizens take cover and observe the tornado warnings in effect.
Michael does not believe that his town will get hit (he is in denial) and is severely injured by a tornado.

65. Denial 

66. Defense Mechanisms
Projection: Believing that impulses coming from within are really coming from other people.
Example: A boy who is extremely jealous of his girlfriend but does not want to admit to himself that he is threatened by her independence may claim, “I’m not jealous – she’s the one who is always asking where I’ve been, and who was that girl I was talking to. She’s the one who’s jealous.”

67. Defense Mechanisms
This mechanism is called projection because inner feelings are thrown, or projected, outside of the self and assigned to others.
If a person thinks, for example, that others dislike him when in reality he dislikes himself, he is said to be projecting.

68. Defense Mechanisms
Reaction Formation: Replacing an unacceptable feeling or urge with an opposite one.
Example: A divorced father may resent having his child for the weekend. Unconsciously, he believes it is terribly wrong for a father to react that way, so he showers the child with expressions of love, toys, and exciting trips.

69. Defense Mechanisms
A woman who finds her powerful ambitions unacceptable, may play the role of a weak, helpless, passive female who wants to do nothing more than to please the men in her life – unconsciously covering up her true feelings.

70. Defense Mechanisms
Regression: Going back to an earlier and less mature pattern of behavior.
When a person is under severe pressure, he may start acting in ways that helped him in the past.
Example: He may throw a temper tantrum, make faces, cry loudly, or revert to eating and sleeping all the time like he did when he was a child.
Have you ever stuck out your lower lip and pouted? Even if you were just joking?

71. Regression 

72. Defense Mechanisms
Displacement: Occurs when you cannot take out your anger on the source of your frustrations, so you displace it or take it out, on a less powerful person.
Example: If for some reason, you wanted to hit your father but were afraid to, you might hit your little brother instead.
Your poor brother gets slapped around, partly because he reminds you of your father and partly because he is not likely to hit you back.

73. Displacement 

74. Defense Mechanisms
Sublimation: Redirecting a forbidden desire into a socially acceptable desire.
Example: You may be so frustrated with your friends arrogant attitude that you work extra hard at football practice, pushing yourself to your physical limits.
You have channeled your aggressive feelings into physical activities.

75. Carl Jung
Carl Jung ( ) was Sigmund Freud’s closest associate at one time.
They began to argue over Freud’s theories of the psyche, and 7 years later, they never spoke again.
Jung disagreed with Freud on 2 major points:
1. Jung took a positive view of human nature, believing that people try to develop their potential as well as handle their instinctive urges.
2. He distinguished between the personal unconscious, which was similar to Freud’s idea of the unconscious, and the collective unconscious, which is a storehouse of instincts, urges and memories of the entire human species throughout history.

76. Carl Jung
Archetype: An inherited idea, based on the experiences of one’s ancestors, which shapes one’s perception of the world.
According to Jung, the same archetypes are present in every person. They reflect the common experiences of all of society (war, nature, sex, and so on.)
Jung went on to identify these archetypes by studying dreams and visions, paintings, poetry, folk, myths, and religions.

77. Carl Jung
He found that most cultures share certain beliefs, myths, and symbols that are all separated by time.
For example: The story of Jack and the beanstalk is essentially the same as the story of David and Goliath. Both tell how a small, weak, good person, triumphs over a big, strong, bad person.
Jung believed that such stories have been described and have occurred throughout human history and are stored in the unconscious of every human being.
According to Jung, we then use these concepts to develop our personalities.

78. Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler ( ) was another associate of Freud who left to develop his own approach to the personality theory.
Alfred believed that the driving force in peoples lives is the desire to overcome feelings of inferiority.
Example: Napoleon, inferior due to his stature and was highly aggressive and angry due to this. Eventually conquering most of Europe.

79. Alfred Adler According to Adler, everyone struggles with inferiority.
Inferiority Complex: A pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather than trying to overcome their source.
According to Adler, children first feel inferior due to their size and abilities, if this feeling is reinforced, it can lead to an inferiority complex.

80. Inferiority Complex 

81. Or the Monkey will throw his poo at you!
Study for Your Test!
Or the Monkey will throw his poo at you!