2.  Anatomy is the study of the structure of an organism  Physiology is the study of the functions an organism performs  Form and function are related An animal’s size and shape (body plan or design) affect the way it interacts with its environment.

3.  Emergent properties(AP Bio Review Ch.1)  Most animals are made up of groups of cells that are organized into tissues that have different functions according to their structure. › Epithelial › Connective › Muscle › Nervous  Tissues make up organs, which all together make up organ systems. Organ System and Organs Tissues Cell Emergent properties are due to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.

4.  Covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body  Closely joined cells: barrier against mechanical injuries, pathogens, and fluid loss  Shape of Epithelial: › Cubodial (like Dice) › Columnar (like Bricks) › Squamous (floor tiles)  Arrangement of epithelial cells:  Simple (single cell layer),  Stratified (multiple layers of cells)  pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length) Different cell shapes and arrangements have distinct functions.

5.  Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues  Has sparsely packed cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix  The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid, jellylike, or solid foundation  Three types of connective tissue: › Collagenous fibers : provide strength and flexibility › Elastic Fibers : stretch and snap back to their original length › Reticular Fibers : Join the connective tissue to adjacent tissue  Connective tissue contains cells: › Fibroblasts: that secrete the protein of extracellular fibers › Macrophages: involved in the immune system Shows the macrophages and the collagen and the interstitial fluid that fills the spaces between the cells.

6.  Six major types of connective tissue: › Loose connective tissue: binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place › Cartilage: is a strong and flexible support material › Fibrous connective tissue: is found in tendons, which attach muscles to bones, and ligaments, which connect bones at joints › Adipose Tissue : fat for insulation and fuel › Blood Tissue : composed of blood cells and ell fragments in blood plasma › Bone Tissue : mineralized and forms the skeleton The variation of the matrix results in six different types of connective tissue

7.  Muscle tissue consists of long cells called muscle fibers, which contract in response to nerve signals  Three types in the vertebrae body › Skeletal muscle : or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement › Smooth muscle : responsible for involuntary body activities › Cardiac muscle : responsible for the contraction of the heart The cells in each muscle tissue responsible for all types of body movements.

8.  Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal  Nervous tissue contains: › Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses › Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y2N_b0qwvxYNeuron Glial Dendrite Cell body Axon An example of a neuron.

9.  Write E for epithelial, M for muscle, C for connective, and N for nervous tissue 1. ____ Dice shaped cells 2. ____ transmits signals 3. ____sparse population of cells scattered through an EM 4. ____loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood 5. ____cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle 6. ____consists of long cells called muscle fibers 7. ____ closely joined cells 8. ____ consists of fibroblasts and macrophages 9. ____ binds and supports other tissues 10. ____contain glial cells C C E M M C C N N E

10.  Endocrine System › Transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body through the bloodstream. › A hormone may affect one or more locations throughout the body. › Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long lasting effects. › The endocrine system is well suited for coordinating gradual changes that affect the entire body including growth and development, reproduction, and metabolic processes.  Nervous System  Neurons transmit information between specific locations.  The information transmitted depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal.  Each signal is called a nerve impulse which travels to a target cell along a dedicated communication line, consisting of the neuron extensions called axons.  Target cells: neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells. It conveys information by the pathway the signal takes. Signaling in the nervous system involves more than one type of signal. Nerve impulses travel within axons and change in voltage. Passing signals from one neuron to another involves short range chemical signals.  Transmission is fast; they take only a fraction of a second to reach the target and last only a fraction of a second. Signaling in the endocrine and nervous system

11.  Regulators: when an animal uses internal control mechanisms to regulate internal change in the face of external fluctuation. › A river otter keeps its body at a temperature independent of that of the water’s temperature.  Conformer: when an animal allows its internal condition to conform to external changes in the variable. -Largemouth bass conforms to the temperature of the lake in which it lives. As the water warms or cools, the cells of the bass do as well.  An animal may regulate some internal conditions while allowing others to conform to the environment. Ex: › Even though the bass conforms to the temperature of the surrounding water, the solute concentration in its blood and interstitial fluid differs from the solute concentration of the fresh water in which it lives. This is because the fish’s anatomy and physiology enables it to regulate internal changes in solute concentration. The relationship between body and environmental temperatures in an aquatic temperature regulator and an aquatic temperature conformer.

12.  Homeostasis is when animals maintain a relatively constant internal environment even when the external environment changes significantly.  History: Claude Bernard: made distinction between external environments surrounding an animal and internal environment in which cells of the animal actually live. He recognized that many animals tend to maintain relatively constant conditions in their internal environment, even when the external environment changes. His “constant internal milieu” is incorporated into the concept of homeostasis, which means “steady state” or internal balance  Maintaining Homeostasis: Animals maintain homeostasis by maintaining a variable (i.e.: body temperature or solute concentration) at or near a set point. Fluctuations in the variable above or below the set point serve as the stimulus. A receptor, or sensor, detects the stimulus and triggers a response, a physiological activity that helps return the variable to the set point. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ 0afKWu4yVghttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ 0afKWu4yVg (15 min) An example of the body’s response to a fluctuation in temperature to keep constant.

13.  Negative Feedback: a response that reduces the stimulus. › When you exercise, you produce heat, which in turn increases body temperature. Your nervous system detects this increase and triggers sweating. The evaporation of moisture from your skin cools your body and helps return your body temperature to its set point.  Positive Feedback: it occurs in animals but does not usually contribute to homeostasis. It triggers mechanisms that amplify the stimulus. The baby signals contractions in the mother to begin childbirth, which is an example of positive feedback.  Normal Range: When animals have an upper and lower limit rather than a single set point which allows for additional fluctuation.  Acclimatization: process by which an animal adjusts to changes in its external environment. (temporary change) Nonliving example: Regulating room temperature depends on a control center that detects temperature change and activates mechanisms that reverse that change. (neg. feedback)

14. Fill in (a) for endocrine system or (b) for nervous system. __Coordinates immediate and rapid responses including quick locomotion __Releases hormones that effect cells that contain certain receptors for that individual hormone. __The signal, a nerve impulse, moves along communication lines called axons __Signals involve short range chemical signals __Transmission occurs within a fraction of a second __The effects are relatively long because the hormones remain in the bloodstream and tissue for seconds, minutes, and even hours __Coordinates growth, development, reproduction, and digestion __Target cells include neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells A B A B B A A B

15.  Thermoregulation: the process of an animal maintaining an internal temperature in a certain range. › The hypothalamus in the brain contains nerve cells that function to regulate internal body temperature  Endothermic organisms(birds/mammals) use heat generated internally by metabolism for warmth › Often have a warmer internal body than the environment.  Ecothermic organisms: (reptiles/invertebrates) use heat from an external source for warmth https://www.youtube.com/watch?v =TSUCdLkI474https://www.youtube.com/watch?v =TSUCdLkI474 ( 5 min) The thermoregulation function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation

16.  During vasodilation, an organism increases the diameter of blood vessels near the skin. › This results in an increase in blood flow in the skin that gives off heat to the environment, cooling the body organism.  Vasoconstriction reduces the diameter of blood vessels to reduce the blood flow › This results in less heat leaving the organism keeping the internal body warm. Vasodilation vs. Vasoconstriction

17.  A countercurrent heat exchanger is used to prevent heat from exiting an organism › This is done by having multiple blood vessels be adjacent to each other which allows for a heat transfer from the warm vessels to the cold ones.  This process can be turned off in order to increase heat loss.  Ectotherms will seek a warm area when their body temperature is cold or a cold are when they are warm.  Thermogenesis is the production of heat and is used by endotherms to stay warm. › An example would be shivering where organisms produce heat by additional body movement when cold. These are concurrent exchangers who trap heat in the body. The heat in the arterial blood emerging from the body core is transferred directly to the returning venous blood.

18.  Organisms change in order to regulate their body heat in response to changing environmental temperature. › Endotherms often accomplish this by changing externally such as growing a coat of fur to stay warm in the winter and shedding it during the summer. › Ectotherms often change at the cellular level  Using variations of enzymes that function at differing optimal temperatures.  Changing the proportion of saturated and unsaturated lipids due to the presence of unsaturated lipids keeping the membrane fluid in colder temperatures.  Some ectotherms are able to produce various ‘antifreeze’ compounds to prevent ice from forming in cells.

19.  The maintaining of internal temperature inside an organism ____________  Organisms such as reptiles that obtain heat from the external environment _______  Organisms such as mammals that generate internal heat________  Narrowing blood vessels to decrease heat loss ________  Expanding blood vessels to increase heat loss________  The adjacent arrangement of arteries and veins to reduce heat loss in an organism __________________ Thermoregulation Endotherms Concurrent Heat Exchange Vasoconstriction VasodilationEcthotherms Thermoregulation Ecthotherms Endotherms Vasoconstriction Vasodilation Concurrent Heat Exchange

20.  The overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal.  Metabolic Rate- The amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time.  Influenced by age, sex, size, activity, temperature, and nutrition.  Endotherms use far more energy than ectotherms due to metabolism. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n DCxIpiI7-Yhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n DCxIpiI7-Y (10 min) Overview of Bioenergetics in an animal.

21.  Metabolic rate is roughly proportional to proportional to the body mass to the ¾ power.(m 3/4 )  Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)- The minimum metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress.  Measured under a “comfortable” temperature range for the endotherm. The relationship of metabolic rate to body size.

22.  Standard Metabolic rate- The metabolic rate of a fasting, nonstressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature.  Torpor- A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.  Enables animals to save energy while avoiding dangerous or harsh conditions. Energy budgets for four animals. (annual energy expenditures)

23.  Hibernation- long- term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.  Estivation- Summer torpor that allows animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water. Body temperature and metabolism during hibernation in Belding’s ground squirrels.

24.  All endotherms that use this are relatively small. They have high metabolic rates when active and, therefore, have high rates of energy consumption.  Some bats feed at night and go into torpor in daylight.  Chickadees and hummingbirds feed during the day and often go into torpor on cold nights. Examples of endotherms

25. Categorize each of the following scenarios as an example of daily torpor(D), estivation(E), or hibernation(H). Some types of snails become inactive when the climate becomes too hot or dry. A squirrel becomes inactive in the coldest parts of winter. A bat becomes inactive during the day and hunts at night. Bears eat large amounts of food to store energy and become inactive in the winter. E E D H H