1. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Slides prepared by Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Ch 9 Soil and Agriculture Part 2: Environmental Issues and the Search for Solutions

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Lecture Outlines Chapter 9 Environment: The Science behind the Stories 4th Edition Withgott/Brennan

3. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 1: Review Traditional subsistence agriculture uses all of the following, except: a)Animal power b)Irrigation c)Irrigation water d)Fossil fuels

4. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 2: Review Physical weathering is characterized by: a)The chemical interaction of water with parent material b)Organisms breaking down parent material c)Wind or rain breaking down parent material d)The dislodging or movement of soil by wind

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 3: Review Erosion increases through all of the following, except: a)Excessive tilling b)Overgrazing c)Clearing forests d)All of the above increase erosion

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 4: Review Which sustainable farming method involves planting rows of trees along field edges to slow the wind? a)Terracing b)Crop rotation c)Shelterbelts d)Contour farming

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 5: Interpreting Graphs and Data According to this figure, which of the following is NOT true? a) Reduced tillage results in less nitrogen loss b) Conventional tillage causes more soil loss c) Organic carbon lost is greater with reduced tillage d) Conventional and reduced tillage have few differences

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 5: Interpreting Graphs and Data According to this figure, which of the following is NOT true? a) Reduced tillage results in less nitrogen loss b) Conventional tillage causes more soil loss c) Organic carbon lost is greater with reduced tillage d) Conventional and reduced tillage have few differences

9. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings This lecture will help you understand: The relationship between soils and agriculture Major agricultural developments The fundamentals of soil science Causes and consequences of soil erosion and degradation Principles of soil conservation

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings No-till agriculture in Iowa Repeated plowing and planting damage soil No-till farming -Benefits the soil -Saves time and money Other conservation measures: -Careful use of fertilizers -Preventing erosion -Retiring fragile soils Production is not lowered

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil: the foundation for agriculture* Land devoted to agriculture covers 38% of Earth’s land surface Agriculture = practice of raising crops and livestock for human use and consumption Cropland = land used to raise plants for human use Rangeland or pasture = land used for grazing livestock Soil = a complex plant-supporting system consisting of disintegrated rock, organic matter, water, gases, nutrients, and microorganism -It is a renewable resource

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Population and consumption degrades soil* Feeding the world’s rising human population requires changing our diet or increasing agricultural production Land suitable for farming is running out We must find ways to improve the efficiency of food production Mismanaged agriculture turns grasslands into deserts; removes forests; diminishes biodiversity; and pollutes soil, air, and water -Fertile soil is blown and washed away

13. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Millions of acres of cropland are lost each year We lose 5-7 million ha (12-17 million acres) of productive cropland annually

14. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil degradation has many causes* Soil degradation results from deforestation, agriculture and overgrazing Over the past 50 years, soil degradation has reduced global grain production by 13%

15. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Agriculture arose 10,000 years ago* Agriculture was invented independently by different cultures The earliest plant and animal domestication is from the “Fertile Crescent” of the Middle East -Wheat, barley, rye, peas, lentils, onions, goats, sheep

16. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Traditional agriculture* Traditional agriculture = biologically powered agriculture, using human and animal muscle power -Subsistence agriculture = families produce only enough food for themselves -Intensive agriculture = produces excess food to sell -Uses animals, irrigation and fertilizer, but not fossil fuels

17. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Industrialized agriculture is a recent phenomenon* Industrialized agriculture = using large-scale mechanization and fossil fuels to boost yields -Also uses pesticides, irrigation and fertilizers -Monocultures = uniform planting of a single crop Green revolution = the use of new technology, crop varieties and farming practices introduced to developing countries -Increased yields -Created new problems and worsened old ones

18. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil as a system* Soil consists of mineral matter, organic matter, air, and water -Dead and living microorganisms, and decaying material -Bacteria, algae, earthworms, insects, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles Since soil is composed of living and non-living matter, it is considered an ecosystem

19. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil formation is slow and complex* Parent material = the base geologic material of soil -Lava, volcanic ash, rock, dunes -Bedrock = the continuous mass of solid rock comprising the Earth’s crust Weathering = the physical, chemical, or biological processes that break down rocks to form soil -Physical (mechanical) = wind and rain, no chemical changes in the parent material -Chemical = substances chemically interact with parent material -Biological = organisms break down parent material

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Weathering produces soil

21. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Other processes affect soil formation* Erosion = the dislodging and movement of soil by wind or water -Occurs when vegetation is absent Biological activity includes deposition, decomposition, and accumulation of organic matter -Humus = a dark, spongy, crumbly mass of material formed by partial decomposition

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Key processes in soil formation Key processes in forming soil: weathering and the accumulation and transformation of organic matter They are influenced by the following factors: -Climate: soils form faster in warm, wet climates -Organisms: plants and decomposers add organic matter -Topography: hills and valleys affect exposure to sun, wind, and water -Parent material: influences properties of resulting soil -Time: soil can take decades to millennia to form

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil formation

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings A soil profile consists of horizons* Horizon = each layer of soil Soil profile = the cross-section of soil as a whole Up to six major horizons may occur in a soil profile -Topsoil = inorganic and organic material most nutritive for plants -Leaching = dissolved particles move down through horizons

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soils are characterized in many ways Soils are classified based on color, texture, structure, and pH Soil color = indicates its composition and fertility -Black or dark brown = rich in organic matter -Pale gray or white = indicates leaching Soil texture = determined by the size of particles -From smallest to largest = clay, silt, sand -Loam = soil with an even mixture of the three -Influences how easy it is to cultivate and let air and water travel through the soil

26. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil structure and pH Soil structure = a measure of soil’s “clumpiness” -A medium amount of clumpiness is best for plants -Repeated tilling compacts soil, decreasing its water- absorbing capabilities Soil pH = affects a soil’s ability to support plant growth -Soils that are too acidic or basic can kill plants -pH influences the availability of nutrients for plants

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Nutrient availability

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Regional differences in soils affect agriculture Rainforests have high primary productivity, but the nutrients are in plants, not the soil -Rain leaches minerals and nutrients deeper into the soil, reducing their accessibility to roots -Swidden agriculture = cultivation of a plot for a few years and then letting it regrow into forest Temperate grasslands have lower rainfall and less nutrient leaching

29. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Differences in regional agriculture Swidden agriculture is not sustainable at high population densities Dead plants return nutrients to the soil on the Iowa prairie

30. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Erosion degrades ecosystems and agriculture Deposition = the arrival of eroded material at its new location Flowing water deposits sediment in river valleys and deltas -Floodplains are excellent for farming But, erosion is a problem because it occurs faster than new soil is formed Erosion increases through: excessive tilling, overgrazing, and clearing forests

31. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil erodes by several methods* Plants protect soils form erosion -Removing plants accelerates erosion Rill erosion moves the most topsoil, followed by sheet and splash forms of erosion Water erosion occurs most easily on steep slopes Erosion in the U.S. declined between 1982 and 2001 -Soil conservation measures Despite conservation measures, the U.S. still loses 6 tons of soil for every ton of grain harvested

32. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Various types of soil erosion* Splash Sheet Rill Gully

33. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Erosion removes soil Water erosion removes soil from farmlands -Erosion in the U.S. has declined due to soil conservation measures

34. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Soil erosion is a global problem Humans are the primary cause of erosion -It is occurring at unnaturally high rates In Africa, erosion over the next 40 years could reduce crop yields by half -Coupled with rapid population growth, some observers describe the future of agriculture as a crisis situation

35. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Desertification* Desertification = a loss of more than 10% productivity -Erosion, soil compaction, forest removal, overgrazing, salinization, climate change, depletion of water sources Most prone areas = arid and semiarid lands

36. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Desertification has high costs* Desertification affects 1/3 of the planet’s land area -In over 100 countries Costs tens of billions of dollars each year -China loses over $6.5 billion/year alone from goat overgrazing -In Kenya, 80% of he land is vulnerable to desertification from overgrazing and deforestation

37. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Dust Bowl* In the late 19 th and early 20th centuries, settlers arrived in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, New Mexico and Colorado Grew wheat, grazed cattle -Removed vegetation A drought in the 1930s made conditions worse Thousands of farmers left their land and had to rely on governmental help

38. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The Soil Conservation Service Started in 1935, the Service works with farmers to develop conservation plans for farms -Assess the land -Prepare an integrated plan -Work closely with landowners -Implement conservation measures Conservation districts = districts operate with federal direction, authorization, and funding, but are organized by the states

39. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation districts Districts implement soil conservation programs to empower local residents to plan and set priorities Natural Resources Conservation Service = 1994 renaming of the Soil Conservation Service -Expanded responsibilities include water quality protection and pollution control -Serves as a model for efforts around the world

40. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings International soil conservation efforts The SCS and NRCS serve as models for efforts around the world A large part of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay uses no- till farming -Resulting from grassroot farmers’ organizations -Helped by agronomists and extension agents An extension agent helps a farmer grow yucca plants in Colombia, South America

41. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting soil: crop rotation and contour farming* Crop Rotation = alternating the crops grown field from one season or year to the next, -Cover crops protect soil when main crops aren’t planted -Wheat or corn and soybeans Contour Farming = plowing furrows sideways across a hillside, perpendicular to its slope, to prevent rills and gullies

42. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting soil: terracing and intercropping Terracing = level platforms are cut into steep hillsides, sometimes with raised edges -A “staircase” to contain water Intercropping = planting different types of crops in alternating bands or other spatially mixed arrangements -Increases ground cover

43. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Protecting soil: shelterbelts and reduced tillage Shelterbelts (windbreaks) = rows of trees planted along edges of fields -Slows the wind -Can be combined with intercropping Conservation tillage = reduces the amount of tilling -Leaves at least 30% of crop residues in the field -No-till farming disturbs the soil even less

44. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation tillage saves soil It increases organic matter and soil biota -Reducing erosion and improving soil quality Prevents carbon from entering the atmosphere Reduces fossil fuel use But may increase use of herbicides and fertilizers

45. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pros and cons of no-till farming Almost half of U.S. farmland uses no-till farming Benefits: reduced soil erosion, greater crop yields, enhanced soils Negatives: increased use of herbicides and fertilizers But, green manure (dead plants and fertilizer) and rotating crops minimizes the negatives

46. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Plant cover reduces erosion* Eroding banks along creeks and roadsides are stabilized by planting plants to anchor soil China has the world’s largest tree- planting program -It does slow erosion -But it does not create ecologically functional forests, because monocultures are planted

47. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Irrigation: boosted productivity, but problems, too* Irrigation = Artificially providing water to support agriculture -Unproductive regions become farmland Waterlogging = over-irrigated soils -Water suffocates roots Salinization = the buildup of salts in surface soil layers -Worse in arid areas Salinization inhibits production of 20% of all irrigated cropland, costing more than $11 billion/year

48. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Salinization prevention* It is easier and cheaper to prevent salinization than fix it Do not plant water-guzzling crops in sensitive areas Irrigate with low-salt water Irrigate efficiently, supplying only water that the crop requires -Drip irrigation targets water directly to plants

49. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fertilizers boost yields but cause problems* Fertilizer = substances that contain essential nutrients Inorganic fertilizers = mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements Organic fertilizers = the remains or wastes of organisms -manure, crop residues, fresh vegetation -Compost = produced when decomposers break down organic matter Applying synthetic fertilizer, vs. Planting rye, a “green manure”

50. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overapplication of Fertilizer* Inorganic fertilizer use has skyrocketed Overapplying fertilizer can ruin the soil and severely pollute several areas Runoff causes eutrophication in nearby water systems Nitrates leach through soil and contaminate groundwater Nitrates can also volatilize (evaporate) into the air

51. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Environmental effects of over-fertilizing*

52. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Overgrazing causes soil degradation* Overgrazing = too many animals eat too much of the plant cover -Impedes plant regrowth A leading cause of soil degradation Government subsidies provide few incentives to protect rangeland 70% of the world’s rangeland is classified as degraded

53. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Effects of overgrazing can be striking Erosion increases, making it hard for plants to grow Non-native invasive species invade -Less palatable to livestock -Outcompete native vegetation Ungrazed plotGrazed plot

54. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Forestry impacts soil Along with farming and ranching, forestry impacts soils Clear-cutting = the removal of all trees from an area at once -Leads to soil erosion, especially on steep slopes Modern methods remove fewer trees over longer periods of time -Minimizes soil erosion

55. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings U.S. programs promote soil conservation Food Security Act of 1985: Farmers that adopt soil conservation plan receive price supports and other benefits Conservation Reserve Program (1985) -Farmers are paid to place highly erodible land into conservation reserves -Trees and grasses are planted instead of crops -Saves 771 million tons of topsoil per year -Generates income for farmers -Provides habitat for native wildlife

56. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Federal Agricultural Improvement Act (1996) Known as the Freedom to Farm Act -Aimed to reduce subsidies and government influence over farm products -Created the Environmental Quality Incentive Program and Natural Resource Conservation Foundation -Promotes and pays for conservation practices in agriculture Low-Input Sustainable Agriculture Program (1998) -Provides funding for sustainable agricultural practices for individual farmers

57. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings International soil conservation programs Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) = the United Nations’ main agricultural program The FAO’s Farmer-Centered Agricultural Resource Management Program (FAR)… -Helps farmers duplicate agricultural success stories -Uses local communities to educate and encourage farmers to conserve soils and secure the food supply -Supports innovative approaches to resource management and sustainable agriculture in around the world -China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Nepal

58. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conclusion Programs in the U.S. and the world have been successful in reducing topsoil erosion These programs require: -Research, education, funding, and commitment from farmers and governments To avoid a food crisis caused by population growth, we need -Better technology -Wider adoption of soil conservation techniques -To consider Aldo Leopold’s land ethic program

59. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The buildup of salts in soils as a result of over irrigation is: A.Salinization B.Leaching C.Erosion D.Evaporation E.Weathering

60. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings During most of human’s 100,000 year existence and up until 10,000 years ago A. we depended upon hunting B.we depended upon crops C. we depended upon cattle D.we depended upon hunting and gathering E.we depended upon crops and cattle

61. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Factors involved in soil formation: A.tropical climate, acid precipitation, frequent wildfires B.seasonal changes in the tides C.nitrogen-fixing bacteria, grazing by herbivores D.weathering of parent material, freezing/thawing, growth of tree roots E.erosion, level terrain, absence of rooted vegetation

62. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings True or false Organic fertilizers can cause environmental damage even if used properly

63. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings The consequences of overfertilization can include: A.eutrophication in nearby waters B.large crop yields per acre C.crops spreading rapidly into nearby areas D.very futile soils in future years E. Very large fruits and vegetables

64. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 1: Review Traditional subsistence agriculture uses all of the following, except: a)Animal power b)Irrigation c)Irrigation water d)Fossil fuels

65. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 2: Review Physical weathering is characterized by: a)The chemical interaction of water with parent material b)Organisms breaking down parent material c)Wind or rain breaking down parent material d)The dislodging or movement of soil by wind

66. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 3: Review Erosion increases through all of the following, except: a)Excessive tilling b)Overgrazing c)Clearing forests d)All of the above increase erosion

67. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 4: Review Which sustainable farming method involves planting rows of trees along field edges to slow the wind? a)Terracing b)Crop rotation c)Shelterbelts d)Contour farming

68. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION 5: Interpreting Graphs and Data According to this figure, which of the following is NOT true? a) Reduced tillage results in less nitrogen loss b) Conventional tillage causes more soil loss c) Organic carbon lost is greater with reduced tillage d) Conventional and reduced tillage have few differences

69. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Weighing the Issues Should developed nations fund reforestation projects in developing nations to combat erosion and deforestation? a)Absolutely, developing nations are facing a crisis b)No, not with money, but developed nations could give advice c)No, developed nations had to solve their problems, let the others solve their own problems d)I don’t care, it doesn’t really affect me

70. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings QUESTION: Weighing the Issues Should the U.S. government provide farmers with financial incentives to use technologies such as no-till farming and crop rotation? a)Absolutely, farmers may be more likely to switch to these techniques b)Yes, but farmers must put any money received into the farm c)No, it’s not the government’s job to interfere with farming practices d)I don’t care, it doesn’t really affect me