1. AQA Econ 1: Markets and market failure
1.5.2 Methods of government intervention to correct distortions in individual markets
Can you remember 5 reasons for government intervention?
AQA Econ 1: Markets and market failure

2. 1.5.2 What you need to know
Candidates should be able to use basic economic models to analyse and evaluate the use of indirect taxation, subsidies, price controls, buffer stocks, pollution permits, state provision and regulation to correct market failure

3. The ways in which governments intervene to correct market failure
There are a number of ways in which governments can intervene to correct market failure
These include:
Indirect taxes
Subsidies
Price controls
Buffer stocks
Pollution permits
State provision
Regulation

4. Indirect taxes
Taxation is the medium through which governments finance their spending and control the economy. It is a charge imposed on products, individuals and businesses.
An indirect tax is a tax on a good or a service.
A direct tax is a tax on an individual or an organisation.
The incidence (or burden) of tax is the amount that the consumer (or producer) will pay for the tax.
The imposition of an indirect tax will lead to an increase in the cost of supply for a firm. This will lead to a shift in the supply curve up and to the left. Quantity supplied will decrease by Q-Q1. P will increase from P to P1.
The increase in tax has caused the price to rise by the vertical distance between the supply curves. The incidence (amount) of the tax paid for by the producer is shown by the blue line (equivalent to P-P0). The incidence of the tax paid for by the consumer is shown by the green line (P1-P).
The revenue raised for the government by the tax is the distance from P0 to P1 multiplied by Q1.
S with tax
Price
Quantity D P Q S P1 Q1 P0
Tax
What would be the impact of an indirect tax on alcohol, cigarettes, fatty foods and gambling?
To what extent do the government tax products because they are demerit goods?

5. Do wind farms rely too heavily on government subsidies?
A subsidy is a financial incentive to produce or consume a given product. S
Price
Quantity D P Q
S with subsidy P1 Q1
Subsidy
The imposition of a subsidy will lead to a decrease in the cost of supply for a firm. This will lead to a shift in the supply curve down and to the right. Quantity supplied will increase by Q-Q1. P will decrease from P to P1.
The subsidy has caused supply to rise by the vertical distance between the supply curves. The subsidy will be shared between the consumer and the producer.
Do wind farms rely too heavily on government subsidies?
Should the government be using subsidies to combat climate change? Use a diagram to show how this might work.

6. Price controls
A price control is when the government set maximum or minimum prices for a good or service.
The imposition of a minimum price at P1 will lead to excess supply of Q1 Q2 as firms will wish to supply more at a higher price.
The national minimum wage was introduced by the Labour Government in 1999 in attempt to redistribute income to low paid workers.
Some commentators suggested that the demand for workers would be lower than the equilibrium level and there would be an excess supply of labour. S
Price
Quantity D P Q P1 Q1 Q2
Minimum wage
in the UK.

7. Price controls
The imposition of a maximum price at P1 will lead to excess demand of Q1 Q2 as consumers will wish to demand more at a lower price.
The government may wish to impose a maximum price to prevent the consumer from being exploited. S
Price
Quantity D P Q P1
Should there be controls on rent in order to provide affordable housing? Q1 Q2
Ticket prices at the 2014 World Cup. Do you think FIFA could charge more for a final ticket.

8. Buffer stocks
A buffer stock occurs when the government store agricultural products and commodities in order to maintain stable prices in a market.
This is common in agricultural markets where supply can be severely affected by weather conditions. S
Price
Quantity D Q S1 P Q1
The government keep stock in reserve in order to maintain market equilibrium and guarantee farmers a minimum price for their produce.
The government set a target price of P where output is Q. If there is a decrease in supply e.g. due to a poor harvest the supply curve will shift to S1. The government will release some of its buffer stock and increase supply back to its original equilibrium at PQ.
If there is a bumper harvest supply will increase to S2. The government will buy up stock in order to increase price. Again, the market returns to equilibrium at PQ. S2 Q2

9. Using the market to reduce negative externalities.
Pollution permits
Pollution permits seek to provide an incentive to businesses on a global scale to reduce CO2 emissions.
Due to the recession EU production has fallen so there has been an excess of pollution permits on the market.
This increase in supply of pollution permits has been coupled with a fall in demand as firms produce less.
This has led to a fall in their price making the scheme less effective.
Pollution permits allow firms to produce a legal level of pollution every year
Permits are tradable on the market
If a firm does not use all of its permits it can sell them to other firms that pollute above their allowance
This provides a financial incentive for firms to reduce pollution
Trading schemes seek to reduce CO2 emissions globally
It is difficult to assess the amount and level of permits to provide to firms
Using the market to reduce negative externalities.

10. Pollution permits Recap.
What is meant by the term perfectly inelastic supply?
Price
(pollution rights)
Quantity D P Q
S (legal right to pollute) P1 S1
The government issue a fixed amount of pollution rights in the economy. Therefore, supply is perfectly inelastic as it cannot change.
If there is an increase in demand for pollution permits (the legal right to pollute) demand will shift from D to D1 and the price of these tradable permits will increase.
Firms will either pay more for the right to pollute or they will be incentivised to reduce pollution. Those who do not need their permits can sell them on the market. D1
How do pollution permits work? Q1
Governments can enforce stricter pollution control by reducing the number of tradable permits to Q1. This will lead to a shift in the supply curve to S1 leading to higher prices and a higher cost to firms of creating pollution.

11. How important is state provision of education in Brazil?
State provision occurs when goods and services are either merit goods or public goods. The government will intervene to ensure that an adequate supply of these products is available to the market.
State provision occurs when the government (or state) intervenes in the market in order to supply a good or a service
This will occur if the government believes that the product is:
A merit good
The government supplies goods and services such as state education and health e.g. NHS as society believes that these are under provided by the market mechanism
A public good
The government supplies goods and services such as defence and infrastructure e.g. roads as these would be under provided by the private sector due to the free rider problem
How important is state provision of education in Brazil?

12. Do e-cigarettes need regulation?
Regulation occurs when the government seeks to provide effective competition within markets.
Regulation is undertaken by government to create competitive markets
The government believes that this will protect the interests of consumers so that they are not exploited by firms
Effective regulation will lead to greater choice and lower prices
Regulation takes place in a number of industries such as telecoms, water and energy
A key reason for regulation is to create conditions for continued investment in infrastructure in important areas of the economy
Do e-cigarettes need regulation?

13. Quick test One reason that governments intervene is
To increase the supply of demerit goods
To reduce the supply of merit goods
To issue pollution permits
To minimise negative externalities
Can you explain your answer? D

14. Quick test S
Price
Quantity D S1
As a result of a government subsidy the supply curve shifts from S to S1. The subsidy is shown by xy wy yz xz
Can you explain your answer? x w y z D

15. Quick test
The Government wants to encourage greater supply of a merit good. Which action would be appropriate?
Reduce subsidies
Increase taxation
Reduce regulations
Issue less tradable pollution permits
Can you explain your answer? C

16. Test yourself
The final question on ECON 1 is worth 25 marks.
You should build your argument through a number of steps:
Knowledge and understanding
Application
Analysis
Evaluation
It is important to ensure that each step is evident before moving up to the next exam skill e.g. knowledge then application, then analysis, then evaluation.
To what extent can regulations be used to correct market failure in the fast food industry?
To what extent is the provision of information through health warnings on cigarettes the most effective way to correct market failure in this industry?
Discuss the extent to which a subsidy to producers of organic fruit and vegetables might increase their consumption, thus generating positive externalities.
Discuss the extent to which pollution permits are the most effective way of correcting market failure caused by CO2 emissions.
Discuss whether indirect taxes on aircraft travel should be increased.
Discuss the extent to which all health care should be provided privately.
Have you used a diagram to analyse your answer? Subsidies, indirect taxes, pollution permits, externalities, demand and supply etc. Economics is rooted in diagrams. They are your friend – use them!
To what extent do the costs of HS2 outweigh the benefits?