1. 1 Belarus Structure of the Course I. Basic facts II. Two definitions of national identity that can be applied to Belarus III. Historical overview: independence and subordination IV. Belarus since independence: a rugged road to nationhood V. Analysis of national identity in Belarus VI. Group discussion

2. 2 Belarus: Basic Facts area : 207.600 km² (landlocked) population : 10,4 mio population growth rate : -0.15% life expectancy : 62 years (m), 68 years (f) ethnic groups : 81,2% Belarusian, 11.4% Russian, 7.4% Polish, Ukrainian and other religion : 80% Eastern Orthodox, 20% other (Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim etc) official languages : Belarussian & Russian export partners : Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania

3. 3 Government and Politics Government type : Republic President : Alyaksandr Lukashenka Administrative Divisions : 6 voblastsi and 1 municipality: Brestskaya, Homyel’skaya, Mahilowskaya, Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya, Horad Minsk Constitution : 30 March 1994 - revised by national referendum 1996

4. 4 Political Parties : Opposition: BNF - Belarusian Popular Front (Burshevsky/Vyachorka) Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hromada (Shuskevich) CAB - United Civic Party (Bogdankevich) Agrarian Party (Sharetski) Belarusian Labour Party Belarusian Party of Communists Others: KPB - Communist Party of Belarus pro-Lukashenka BPR - Belarusian Patriotic Movement pro-Lukashenka Agrarian Party (Shimanski) pro-Lukashenka Liberal Democratic Party (Gaydukevich) extremist party (links with Zhirinovsky) Lukashenka: Bezpartyjnyj - no party affiliation, ex- communist

5. 5 Executive branch Chief of state : Alyaksandr Lukashenka Head of Government : Prime Minister Gennady Novitsky Minister of Foreign Affairs : Mikhail Khvostov Cabinet : Council of Ministers Elections : president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; first election in 1994, 2nd election should have been in 1999 but Lukashenka extended his term by referendum from 5 to 7 years second elections on Sept. 9, 2001 - percent of vote - Lukashenka 75,6%, Hancharyk 15,4%

6. 6 Legislative Branch: bicameral parliament : Natsianal’niy Schod (national assembly): Sovjet Respubliki (Council of the Republic), 64 seats Palata Predstavitelej (Chamber of Representatives), 110 seats  instead of previous 450 seats Judicial Branch Judicial Branch Supreme Court : judges appointed by President Constitutional Court : half of judges are appointed by President and half of judges are appointed by Chamber of Representatives

7. 7 National Identity? After independence: difficult for Belarus to develop and establish its national identity Different parts of society have different views upon identity è two possible definitions:

8. 8 Anthony Smith (1991) Fundamental features of national identity : 1. a historic territory or homeland 2. common myths and historical memories 3. a common mass public culture 4. common legal rights and duties for all members 5. a common economy with territorial mobility for all members

9. 9 Benedict Anderson (1991) Imagined Communities -a nation = an imagined political community (constructed identity) -end 18th C: Romanov dynasty - Russian Empire -begin 19th Century: self-identification: Romanovs = Great Russians -next step: imposed this on their subjects: official nationalism -in Russian Empire: through Russification (also in Belarus) -Russian identity followed by and continued in Soviet identity

10. 10 Historical Overview

11. 11 Two Remarks: Two Remarks: 1. Only two periods of real independence : Rahvalod dynasty & 1918 2. History of Belarus is not exclusively linked to Russia. 4 centuries of relations with West (mainly Lithuania/Poland)

12. 12 Cautious national revival: 1986-1993 Intelligentsia influenced by perestroika 3 issues triggered change : 1. Chernobyl disaster 1986 70% of radioactive fallout on Belarus 2. Language question -by mid-70s: 2/3 of Belarusians spoke Russian in daily life, only 1/3 Belarusian 3. Mass graves in Kurapaty 1988 -archeologist Zyanon Paznyak discovers graves -mass demonstrations

13. 13 Cautious national revival 1989 : Founding congress of Belarusian Popular Front (BPF) in Vilnius. leader: Zyanon Paznyak BPF and other groupings looked West for national identity: to common history with the Central European Countries and Baltic States (mainly Lithuania) 1991 : ° Republic of Belarus: common myths - new national symbols - white-red-white flag of 1918 - coat of arms with knight (Pahonya) Belarus - Great Duchy of Lithuania

14. 14 Cautious national revival: Problems 1991-1993 Ruling class: reluctant to change internal quarrels (Paznyak vs. Shushkevich) - missed opportunities for BPF BPF failed to bridge the gap to the countryside “The Country was led by an elite, opposed by another elite, while the general masses, conditioned to Soviet Rule, were reduced to passive onlookers” (D. Marples )

15. 15 Lukashenka and Neo-Sovietism Presidential Elections 1994: Lukashenka 80.1% opposition: ‘100 day grace period’ shadow cabinet Lukashenka attacked state television and independent media spoke invariably Russian : èdifferent view upon national identity (than opposition)

16. 16 Referendum of May 1995

17. 17 After Referendum: Referendum: success - why? Soviet Style Flag and coat of arms Soviet textbooks reintroduced Russian became also a state language èintroduction of (neo-)Soviet symbols and customs Taras Kuzio: ‘sultanism’

18. 18 Referendum of November 1996 Referendum of November 1996 Turnout 84%

19. 19 EU reaction to Referendum Did not recognise new, amended Constitution SANCTIONS - PCA not conluded, nor Interim Agreement - Belarusian membership of the Council of Europe not supported - Bilateral Relations at Ministerial level suspended - EU technical assistance programmes frozen 1999: STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH Sanctions gradually lifted upon fulfilment of 4 benchmarks set by OSCE: 1. Substantial powers returned to Parliament 2. Opposition representation in electoral commissions 3. Fair access to the state media for the opposition 4. Electoral legislation conforming to international standards

20. 20 Belarus-Russia Recognised National Assembly 1st years of independence: Belarus 1 of most heavily militarised countries in Europe - wanted non-nuclear, neutral status PCA, START I, PfP 1996 relations with West deteriorated (NATO enlargement) rapprochement with Russia economic dependence: - 66% of Belarus exports go to Russia - ‘the Assembly shop of the Soviet Union’

21. 21 Relations with Russia

22. 22 Belarus-Russia Pessimistic Scenario: Belarus as 90th subject of Russian Federation Union State = pet project of Lukashenka financial support through energy subsidies change under Putin but Belarus still geostrategic importance

23. 23 National Identity 1. Lukashenka & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity 1. Lukashenka & ruling class - (Neo-)Soviet Identity - reinstating official nationalism : Soviet-style symbols - Russification : Russian-language education and main state language èLukashenka strives for a neo-Soviet identity. Isolates Belarus both from democratic West and democratising East: Belarus as an Imagined Community ( Anderson )

24. 24 2. Intelligentsia and young generation: Smith’s National identity 1. Belarus as their homeland /historic territory 2. shared common myths (times of independence) 3. common mass public culture : weekly ‘Pahonya’ and Nasha Niva (°1991, orig. 1906) - underground network 4. common legal rights and duties for all members: human rights aspect 5. common economy : independent Belarusian economy: opposed to merging economy with Russia

25. 25 Anderson’s Imagined Communities  Lukashenka- Neo Sovietism  identity as an arena for the play of rhetorical practices of political actors constructivist view: identity is constructed, tied to civic and political commonalities of a group Smith’s definition of national identity  opposition’s view on national identity  primordialist view: identity is fixed and inherited by territorial and historical commonalities

26. 26 National Identity Current situation: not hopeless irreversible process of growing national identity which path for ideas and support? - exclusively Western - or also Russian path? Russian channel: option for high politics: cooperating through Russia? 2 problems: - make it an issue on the EU-Russia agenda - Russia’s intentions with Belarus?

27. 27 Discussion CIS Do you think that the reluctant attitude of Ukraine towards Russia and the positive attitude of Belarus towards Russia is identity-related in the way it was presented here?