1. Thomas Hobbes
Biography and ideas

2. The Life and Times of Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes was born on April 5, 1588 near Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England.
He graduated from Oxford at age 19.
Hobbes was a tutor to the son of the Earl of Devonshire .
He translated Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War in 1629.
Hobbes visited Galileo and adopted the methods of the new physics as the path to knowledge.
He published a three part work of philosophy including a materialistic metaphysics, De Corpore (1655); a materialistic account of man, De Homine (1658) and a work on the rights and duties of citizens, De Cive (1642).
English Civil War erupted in 1642 – Hobbes fled to Paris.
Hobbes tutored Charles I son, Charles II. King Charles I was imprisoned in 1646.

3. The Life and Times of Thomas Hobbes - Continued
In 1649, Charles I is executed after after an unsuccessful attempt to regain power.
In 1651, Charles II is defeated by Oliver Cromwell. Hobbes presented Charles II with a copy of Leviathan, or Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. Hobbes was forced to flee to England since those around Charles believed Hobbes’ work supported Cromwell.
In 1660, the English monarchy was restored. Hobbes regained his student’s favor.
In 1666, House of Commons introduced bill against atheism and blasphemy, singling out Hobbes’ Leviathan.
Hobbes was forbidden to publish his history of the English Civil War, Behemoth (1670).
Hobbes died of a stroke in 1679 at the age of 92.
Four years later, Oxford condemned and burnt De Cive and Leviathan.

4. Hobbes – The First Political Scientist
Hobbes viewed himself as the first political philosopher.
His predecessors errors fomented sedition, anarchy, and civil war.
The distinction between virtue and vice that was apart from sovereign authority encouraged individuals to judge privately and act outside of the constraints of the civil law.
This private judgment leads to tyrannicide and the chaos of the state of nature.
Similarly badly constructed metaphysical systems encouraged people to fear divine punishments more than the punishments of civil authorities.
Hobbes grounds his political science in natural law and his the father of natural right.
First political philosopher to ground his political thought in natural philosophy.
Those seeking to govern a whole nation must understand human passion. They must know themselves.

5. Hobbesian Nominalism and the Mechanical Psychology of Man
Man’s mind operates on mechanical principles.
Sense experience is a product of matter and motion and reaction to this data is rooted in individual subjective preferences.
Hobbes materialism is translated into his exploration of mental discourse.
Passions govern man according to Hobbes.
Speech is a human artifice (Hobbes) as opposed to a natural endowment (Aristotle)
Hobbes science seeks the right definition of names (nominalism). Speech is the source of science.
Names signify particular bodies.
Names abstract
Names refer to the sensible qualities of a material object caused by a particular motion
Names given to names.
Hobbes speaks of passions with geometric exactness.

6. From Leviathan
NATURE (the art whereby God hath made and governs the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an artificial animal. For seeing life is but a motion of limbs, the beginning whereof is in some principle part within, why may we not say that all automata (engines that move themselves by springs and wheels as doth a watch) have an artificial life? For what is the heart, but a spring; and the nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but so many wheels, giving motion to the whole body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further imitating that rational and most excellent work of Nature, man. For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMONWEALTH, or STATE (in Latin, CIVITAS), which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than natural, for whose protection and defense it was intended; and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body…

7. Of Speech, From Leviathan, Chapter 4
By this it appears how necessary it is for nay man that aspires to true knowledge to examine the definitions of former authors; and either to correct them, where they are negligently set down, or to make them himself. For the errors of definitions multiply themselves, according as the reckoning proceeds, and lead men into absurdities, which at last they see, but cannot avoid, without reckoning anew from the beginning; in which lies the foundation of their errors… Nor is it possible without letters for any man to become either excellently wise or (unless his memory be hurt by disease, or ill constitution of organs) excellently foolish.

8. The Motions of Man and the State of Nature - 1
The beginning of motions in the human body is called endeavor.
When endeavor moves towards its cause, it is called appetite or desire.
When endeavor moves away from its cause, it is called aversion.
Deliberation is a weighing of appetites and aversions.
Deliberative hedonism explains the order of the universe in terms of a calculus of pleasure and pain.
Felicity emerges from fulfilling desire and requires constant motion.
The motion of mankind is “a perpetual and restless desire for power after power, that ceases only in death.”

9. The Motions of Man and the State of Nature - 2
This condition makes Hobbes conclude, “Man is a wolf to his fellow human beings” and this leads the state of nature to be a state of war.
Humans are equal because of even the weakest has sufficient strength to kill the strongest.
Humans can also contract with others to secure their rights.
Quarrels emerge among men because of competition, diffidence, and glory.
The state of nature prohibits civilization.
Hobbes natural philosophy is used as a basis of his political philosophy: It is not all together clear that politics is not natural, but Hobbes is attempting to do away with Aristotle’s doctrine of essences to eliminate the private moral judgment that seems to be the source of war.

10. Of the Interior Beginning of Voluntary Motions, Commonly Called The Passions; and the Speeches by Which They Are Expressed, from Leviathan, Chapter 6
Pleasure therefore, or delight, is the appearance or sense of good; and molestation or displeasure, the appearance or sense of evil. And consequently all appetite, desire, and love is accompanied with some delight more or less; and all hatred and aversion with more or less displeasure and offence… When in the mind of man appetites and aversions, hopes and fears, concerning one and the same thing, arise alternately; and diverse good and evil consequences of the doing or omitting the thing propounded come successively into our thoughts; so that sometimes we have an appetite to it, sometimes an aversion from it; sometimes hope to be able to do it, sometimes despair, or fear to attempt it; the whole sum of desires, aversions, hopes and fears, continued till the thing be either done, or thought impossible, is tat we call DELIBERATION.

11. Of the Natural Condition of Mankind As Concerning Their Felicity and Misery, From Leviathan
Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to every man, the same consequent to the time wherein men live without other security than what their own strength and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such condition there is no place for industry, because fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving and removing such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

12. Natural Right, The Laws of Nature, and the Political
The original condition of man in the state of nature is a state of war of all against all.
There is nothing unjust if self-preservation is the highest end.
Natural right is founded on the desire for self-preservation.
Fear of death and desire for commodious living lead to the willingness to transfer right to an absolute sovereign.
The sovereign determines justice through law (legal positivism) and rules by fear and force.
The salvation of humanity depends not upon divine providence or the grace of God, but upon human industry and labor.
Contract or covenants without fear of non-performance are invalid.
Passion must be subdued by an absolute sovereign to bring peace and security.

13. Absolute Sovereignty, Liberty and the Rights of Subjects
Government is for self-preservation and peaceable life. Hobbes determines the content of natural law by reference to passions as opposed to reason and does not believe it is effective without an external visible force to enforce it.
Absolute government is the solution to this problem since only under absolute government are peace and commodious living possible.
A covenant or contract is entered into by citizens to exchange their judgment for the sovereigns and they cannot contradict the sovereign without contradicting themselves.
The sovereign is the combines the legislative, executive and judicial authority.

14. Absolute Sovereignty, Liberty and the Rights of Subjects - 2
Religion is subordinated to the sovereign.
The sovereign has authority over the distribution of property.
Commerce should remain free enough to channel human felicity toward peace.
Liberty exists where motion is not constrained and the sovereign is silent.
Right to self-preservation is inalienable.
Hobbes’ calculus focuses on pleasure and pain and rejects a higher standard to evaluate the sovereign from. Aristotle good regimes and bad regimes are all turned into regimes that secure survival and peace and are therefore good. What is evil is merely individual disgruntlement.

15. Of the First and Second Natural Laws, and of Contracts, From Leviathan, Chapter 15
Now the science of virtue and vice is moral philosophy; and therefore the true doctrine of the laws of nature is the true moral philosophy. But the writers of moral philosophy, though they acknowledge the same virtues and vices; yet not seeing wherein consisted their goodness, nor that they come to be praised as the means of peaceable, sociable, and comfortable living, place them in a mediocrity of passions: as if not the cause, but the degree of daring, made fortitude; or not the cause, but the quantity of a gift, made liberality. These dictates of reason men used to call by the name laws, but improperly: for they are but conclusions or theorems concerning what conduceth to the conservation and defense of themselves; whereas law, properly, is the word of him that by right hath command over others. But yet if we consider the same theorems as delivered in the word of God that by right commandeth all things, then are they properly called laws.

16. Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Commonwealth, From Leviathan, Chapter 17-18
The final cause, end, or design of men (who naturally love liberty, and dominion over others) in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves, in which we see them live in Commonwealths, is the foresight of their own preservation, and of a more contented life thereby; that is to say, of getting themselves out from the miserable condition of war which is necessarily consequent, as hath been shown, to the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the performance of their covenants, and observation of those laws of nature set down in the fourteenth and fifteenth chapters.

17. Concluding Thoughts
Natural right culminates in a doctrine of absolute sovereignty.
If the sovereign is too weak or oppressive, civil war will be the outcome.
The rules governing the creation of a commonwealth are like the rules governing arithmetic and geometry not tennis where practice and experience matter.
The sovereign’s judgment may be necessary in the complex world of politics, but that judgment should be augmented by the science of politics.
What are the limits of Hobbes’ political science? Passion? Justice?

18. On the Liberty of Subjects, From Leviathan, Chapter 21
As for other liberties, they depend on the silence of the law. In cases where the sovereign has prescribed no rule, there the subject hath the liberty to do, or forbear, according to his own discretion. And therefore such liberty is in some places more, and in some less; and in some times more, in other times less, according as they that have the sovereignty shall think most convenient. As for example, there was a time when in England a man might enter his own land, and dispossess such as wrongly possessed it, by force. But in after times that liberty of forcible entry was taken away by a statute made by the king in Parliament. And in some places of the world men have the liberty of many wives: in other places, such liberty is not allowed.