1. A review of the experience on the impacts of energy from sea (offshore wind, wave, current-tidal, thermal) on the marine and coastal environment Takvor Soukissian Senior Researcher Hellenic Centre for Marine Research

2. Outline 1.Renewable energy sources and technologies 2.The basics 3.The spatial and the temporal scales 4.Environmental stressors & receptors 5.Conclusions

3. Renewable energy sources and technologies

4. Types of renewable ocean energy (Blue energy) 1.Offshore wind energy 2.Sea wave energy 3.Tidal 4.Ocean current 5.Thermal energy

5. BLUE ENERGY 1 Offshore wind 1. Horizontal axis wind turbine 2. Vertical axis wind turbine 3. Floating (horizontal & vertical) axis wind turbine

6. Tides and currents 1.Horizontal axis turbine 2.Vertical axis turbine 3.Enclosed tips 4.Helical Screw 5.Oscillating hydrofoil 6.Tidal kite 7.Other BLUE ENERGY 2 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

7. Waves 1.Attenuator 2.Point absorber 3.Oscillating wave surge converter 4.Oscillating water column 5.Overtopping 6.Pressure differential 7.Bulge wave 8.Rotating mass BLUE ENERGY 3 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

8. Thermal gradients 1. Open cycle 1a. Mist lift cycle 1b. Foam lift cycle 2. Closed cycle 3. Hybrid cycle (2) (3) (1a) (1) BLUE ENERGY 4

9. BLUE ENERGY 5

10. Some blue energy facts Social acceptance of renewable energy sources in Europe (Source: European Commission, 2006) George W. Boehlert and Andrew B. Gill (2010): Oceanography, Vol. 23, No 2.

11. Definition of the basic constituents

12. Stressors are environmental features subject to change during the various stages of development of blue energy installations Receptors are ecosystem elements with capability of response to the stressors Stressors and receptors

13. Involved time-scales, Spatio-temporal extent of the stress Temporal and spatial scales

14. “Effect” is a qualitative change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause characteristic “Impact” is a marked effect or influence, as regards the severity, intensity or duration. There can be positive or negative outcomes to the effect of the stressor Effects vs Impacts

15. The variety of blue energy technologies (developed, patented or under development), nearshore or offshore areas and ecosystems, render the assessment of environmental effects and impacts very difficult Effects vs Impacts

16. The temporal scales

17. For the rational assessment of the construction’s potential effects/impacts on marine life, appropriate temporal scales should be defined: the short-term temporal scale refers to the construction and decommissioning phases (of the order of some months up to a couple of years), the long-term scale extends up to the operational life of the construction (of the order of some decades) and the “permanent” scale, which extends beyond the operational and the decommissioning phase of the construction

18. Design phase (1) Activities during the preconstruction (design) phase include: general planning and site selection / investigation, design of the ocean energy equipment type and the method of installation, consideration of removal options, licensing procedures (including Environmental Impacts Assessment) design of the appropriate and necessary mitigation measures

19. Information on biotic and abiotic characteristics on the considered site should be collected and assessed. Biotic information: marine mammals, sea, resting and migrating birds, fish species, and macrozoo- and phyto- benthos Abiotic information: sediment characteristics, bathymetry and geomorphology, geological/geophysical structure at the site, as well as the general wind, wave and hydrodynamic climate characteristics of the area Planning phase (2)

20. Construction phase (1) Activities related to: site preparation, dredging and leveling, piling/installation/anchoring, cabling, and shipping and air transports

21. Construction phase (2) The disturbances are related to: seabed disruption, noise and increased ship and aerial traffic in the area Milder disturbances: release of pollutants, debris and waste, lighting, (potential effects on bird movements), and risks related to mariners safety

22. Operation phase Scheduled or non-scheduled maintenance and service activities take place. The disturbances are related to: – the physical presence of the device and related infrastructure, – the operational noise and – the maintenance activities The maintenance activities result in increased traffic in the sea area and could have disturbing effects on the biota Maintenance and repairing materials (paints, covering, chemical substances, etc). should be treated with caution in order to avoid chemical pollution Potential EMF effects to some fish species, is an open debate Bird collisions, especially in the presence of the wind turbines along migration routes, could be another important effect

23. Decommissioning phase Limited existing experience. Two options are available: Complete removal of the equipment: The disturbances due to the presence and operation of the equipment are completely eliminated: sediment disturbance and loss of the developed habitats during the operational life of the equipment Leaving part of the subsurface structures in place: The installations would act as permanent structures: any habitats that have been created and/or habitat disturbance from the physical presence of the equipment would be maintained. The foundation components shall be removed until an appropriate depth so as the remaining parts do not pose a danger for navigation

24. The spatial scales

25. The site (1) Apart of the technical specifications, the specific characteristics of a location are chosen by assessing and taking into account potential environmental and socio-economic effects. There are three different, and usually contradictory, points of view for site selection: 1)Priority to the geo-morphological and wind, wave, or sea current characteristics of the area (shallow waters with high energy resource, ease of access to the shore and grid connections, etc.) – The engineering/technical point of view 2)Assessing all the different and legitimate marine uses of the potential sitting area along with other socio-economic effects – The socio-economic point of view 3)Assessing the potential effects/impacts that the construction is expected to have to the marine environment – The environmental point of view

26. The planning phase and especially the site selection procedure is probably the most crucial and important task: the effects of this decision are expected to strongly influence the intensity and the quality of the impacts to the marine environment The site (2)

27. The spatial extent (1)

28. Effects of small energy developments are localized Effects of a single large blue energy development are significantly extended in the surrounding space Cumulative effects of multiple energy developments probably result in completely different sets or spatio-temporal scales of effects The spatial extent (2)

29. Environmental Stressors 1.Physical presence of devices 2.Dynamic effects of devices 3.Energy removal effects 4.Chemical 5.Acoustic 6.EMFs

30. Environmental Stressors Single small blue energy developments have minor or even negligible effects Large energy development have effects extending at a much greater spatial scale and probably temporal scale

31. S ea and migratory birds – Wind energy devices have the most significant potential effects – Wave energy devices have lower potential for seabird collisions. Surface devices may have effects to migratory surface dwellers Physical presence of devices

32. Sea habitats and communities: – The new underwater hard surfaces will affect bottom communities. – When deployed in “neutral” sedimentary bottoms will act as artificial reefs (settlement habitats) potentially attracting pelagic organisms, (“fish aggregation device”) Physical presence of devices

33. – For wind turbines - migratory birds – For underwater turbines - minor effects Dynamic effects of devices: Blade strikes

34. Kinetic energy removal/reduction from water and blockage of flow due to the physical presence of devices can lead to changes in local circulation, wave propagation, sediment equilibrium and turbulence (bottom sediment scouring and habitat changes). For nearshore blue energy developments, erosion and/or deposition may be affected (implications in coastal works and coastal geomorphology) Changes in water flow and turbulence causes changes in stratification and vertical movements of marine organisms. Removal of sufficient tidal energy may imply changes in the local tidal range For OTECs, impingement and entrainment of species. This is most probable for warm water intakes (potential impacts on planktonic and pelagic organisms; more general effects on fisheries). Deep cold water is characterized by lower diversity and biomass Energy removal effects

35. Increased marine vessel traffic implies additional risks (oil spills, etc.) Anti-fouling paints For OTEC, additional concerns emerge due to the ammonia (working fluid in the closed cycle system), nutrients (that may be discharged into surface causing algal blooms), higher heavy metal concentrations (derived from open cycle heat exchangers or from deep natural sources), alteration of chemical conditions in the discharge location, acidification effects, etc. Chemical effects

36. During the construction phase the pile driving generates high-intensity/frequency and short- duration noises During the operational phase underwater turbines or hydroplanes add noise to the underwater environment Marine mammals move away from the area where construction is taking place. At the operation phase, the mammals usually return to the area Some animals could be attracted to the produced noise Acoustic effects

37. Underwater cables emit low-frequency electromagnetic fields (EMFs). EMF responses were variable between individuals and indicated an attraction to the route of a subsurface cable Lack of data do not allow an assessment of EMFs impacts There is a high degree of uncertainty as regards the effect of EMFs on receptors Thermal aspects of electricity transmitting cables. Whether this small temperature change is a stressor is unknown EMF effects George W. Boehlert and Andrew B. Gill (2010): Oceanography, Vol. 23, No 2.

38. Environmental receptors 1.Physical environment 2.Pelagic habitats 3.Benthic habitats / species 4.Fish / fisheries

39. The removal of energy from water may lead to local acceleration and scouring, changes in the circulation and wave propagation patterns, sediment equilibrium, sediment transport and erosion/deposition, coastal geomorphology changes, etc. Currently these processes can be only simulated The operation of OTECs results in altered thermal regimes at sea Physical environment

40. Modification of habitats by creation of new structures 1.Reduced impact on phyto- and zooplankton. Aggregation of other species and attraction of predators 2.Blade strike, collision, impingement and entanglement 3.For OTECs, impingement mortality of planktonic organisms. Stimulation of blooms due to the higher nutrient level deep water Pelagic habitat

41. Habitat changes - modifications to the hydrodynamics of the area 1.The construction acts as artificial reef ( stimulates some species but may negatively affect others) 2.Artificial hard bottom serves as steppingstones for species 3.Placements in neutral bottoms increase biodiversity and affect benthic communities (greater predation ) 4.The “shell mounds” (buoys, anchors etc.) may constitute productive fish habitat 5.Changes in the water flow from OTECs may change benthic communities in the downslope flow. Thermal stresses may change the benthic community (coral reefs) leading to structural changes of the habitat Benthic habitat

42. Fish and fisheries Changes in species composition 1.Attraction of pelagic and benthic species, but also of predators (increased mortality of local species) 2.Potential exclusion of fishing in the area 3.Noise and EMFs effects 4.Behavioral effects due to EMFs or underwater noise (especially as regards orientation capabilities and movement patterns) 5.Migrating fishes may be also affected

43. Marine birds and mammals Increase of energy used by the birds in avoiding blue energy installations Birds avoid wind farm installations (few records of collision) Seabirds aggregate near blue energy sites (increased feeding opportunities) Changes to beach processes or tidal amplitudes affect shorebird foraging Lighting potentially results in collisions of seabirds Open issues – Spatio-temporal abundance, bird activity at night, important areas of bird activity, migration patterns – entanglement and collision of marine mammals, mammal biology – acoustics of blue energy devices and EMF effects

44. The large picture CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE George W. Boehlert and Andrew B. Gill (2010): Oceanography, Vol. 23, No 2.

45. Conclusions

46. MOVING FROM THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE To understand impacts, we need to know whether an effect causes change within a population or community Changes refer to biotic and physical processes and may be direct or indirect Indirect effects are more difficult to be identified

47. Conclusions Need to address the effects of blue energy Need to start understanding the potential impacts Research on the environmental effects is far behind the technological development Need for balanced and fair environmental standards for blue energy devices: avoid risks of environmental damage and avoid inhibiting the technological development

48. Top priority: MONITORING! Question: WHEN, HOW, WHAT, WHERE?

49. Thank you for your attention