UNIT – 3 Environmental Chemistry

UNIT – 3 Environmental Chemistry
Dr. P. Ravindra Babu UNIT – 3 Environmental Chemistry

Contents LITHOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE
SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Contents Seasons of India Layers , state (Weather, climate)
Atmosphere Definition Layers , state (Weather, climate) Acid rain, Green house effect Ozone layer depletion, climate change Global warming , PAN, smog Seasons of India Kyoto and Montreal protocol SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Introduction - EARTH FACTS
The earth is part of the solar system where nine planets orbit a Star called the Sun The age of the earth is approximately 4.65 billion years First life on earth, single -celled blue-green algae, started around 3.5 billion years ago Home to millions of species including humans SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Earth interacts with other objects in outer space, including the Sun and the Moon

Biosphere - Environmental Matrices
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Air Air Water Soil Water Soil SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Atmosphere The atmosphere is a blanket of
gases suspended liquids solids that entirely envelops the earth We refer to this envelope formally as “air” It extends outward several thousand kilometers to a zone characterized more by magnetic field and ionized particles The present atmosphere of the Earth is an oxidizing atmosphere, while the original atmosphere was a reducing atmosphere In particular, it probably did not contain oxygen initially SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Atmosphere Property Atmosphere has weight and exerts pressure.
A liter of air weighs around 1.3 gm. At sea level, the air pressure is g/sq. cm (i.e., one atmospheric pressure). Density and pressure in the atmosphere decrease exponentially with height. The atmospheric pressure decreases the higher up one goes. One half of the atmosphere lies below an altitude of 5.6 km. 90% of the atmosphere is below 16km. At a height of 100 km, only % of all the gases making up the atmosphere remain. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION

Atmosphere Structure Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere has 4 distinct layers that are identified by the way temperature changes with height These layers are: Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere ∞ 75% of the total atmosphere is in the troposphere Approximately 99% of the atmosphere is the troposphere and stratosphere SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Troposphere Weather phenomenon occurs in this layer.
Lowest portion of the atmosphere, Weather phenomenon occurs in this layer. Changes in this layer cause Acid Rains , increase in global temperatures (Greenhouse effect) -93 -3 -52 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Effects of Acid rain SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Electromagnetic Radiation

What is the Greenhouse Effect ?
A percentage of this IR radiation is trapped from escaping back into space by greenhouse gases. If greenhouse gases increase in concentration  more IR is trapped  rise in global temperatures SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Definition of Greenhouse Effect
The phenomenon whereby the earth's atmosphere traps solar radiation and don’t let them to escape out of the atmosphere is known as greenhouse effect. Greenhouse gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, etc., form an insulating layer up in the atmosphere. It acts like an insulator because it slows the loss of heat radiated out from the Earth. This is called the greenhouse effect. If the earth didn't have a greenhouse effect, then the earth wouldn't freeze because it wouldn't trap sunlight. Without this warming we would be a cold dead planet. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming
Water vapor (and clouds) Carbon dioxide Methane Nitrous oxide sulfur dioxide (SO2)  acid rain) Ozone Chlorofuorcarbons (CFCs) Gas Preindustrial Levels Current Levels Increase since 1750 Carbon Dioxide 280 ppm 387 ppm 104 ppm Methane 700 ppb 1,745 ppb 1,045 ppb Nitrous oxide 270 ppb 314 ppb 44 ppb CFC-12 533 ppt SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Causes of Green House Effect
The Natural Causes : Emissions of gases like nitrous oxide, carbon-di-oxide, methane, ozone and water vapour The Man-Made Causes : Deforestation Due to the burning of fossil fuels, oil, coal and gas. All electrical appliances Like refrigerator emits gases Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and are used in refrigerators, some foaming agents in the packaging industry, fire extinguisher chemicals and cleaners used in the electronic industry. Burning of gasoline, oil and coal. Population growth also is a indirect contributor SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Impact of Greenhouse Effect
Increase the global temperature year by year. Rise in water level in seas and oceans. Tropical cyclones will become more intensive SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The ozone layer encircling the Earth is found
Stratosphere The ozone layer encircling the Earth is found It shields the entire Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation that comes from the sun Chloroflurocarbons destroy ozone layer and cause the ozone layer depletion (CF2Cl2, CFCl3, CFCl2, CF2Cl, CCl4, CH3CCl3, CF2HCl, CH3Cl) Photolysis of Cl-containing compounds in the stratosphere. CFCl3 + hv ( nm)  CFCl2. + Cl. CF2Cl2 + hv ( nm)  CF2Cl. + Cl. Subsequent reactions of CFCl2 and CF2Cl  more Cl atoms SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

ozone Ozone is a stable molecule composed of three oxygen atoms.
While stable, it is highly reactive. The Greek word ozein means “to smell” and O3 has a strong pungent odor. Electric discharges in air often produce significant quantities of O3. USES Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB that is particularly harmful to living organisms which can cause cancer skin cancer amd damage vegetation It prevents most UVB reaching the ground powerful disinfectant and oxidant and can even kill microbial contaminates Air Purification, Water Purification, Deodorization, and Food Sanitation SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Effects of UV radiation on biological organisms
DNA damage ………………………….. Maximum effect on small and single cell organisms Impaired growth and photosynthesis ...poor crop yields Phytoplankton: ………………………...Reduced uptake of CO2 …………………………………………..mortality …………………………………………..Impaired reproductive capacity Nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria…………. Reduced, damaged Human health effects: Suppressed immune system……………..Enhanced susceptibility to infection …………………………………………..Increase risk of Cancer Dermatology (skin)……………………...Sunburn …………….………………………….....Loss of skin elasticity (Premature aging) …………….…………………………… Photosensitivity Cancer…………..……………………....Melanocytic (malignant melanoma) …………….………………………….....Squamous cell skin – cancer …………….……………………………Basal skin – cancer Still questionable if causes lip cancer or cancer of the salivary glands Oculur (Eye)….…………………… Cataract SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Effects on Human Health
Non-malignant malignant SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Pterygium over exposure to UV-B Cataracts Cancer

Clouds are rarely found in the mesosphere
Here, the temperature decreases slowly with the altitude but then sharply to a minimum of about - 75°C near the Mesopause, at 80 km Most meteors vaporize in this layer, a type of lightning called sprites sometimes appears in the mesosphere Noctilucent clouds sometimes form in the mesosphere near Earth's poles. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Noctilucent clouds - night shining Highest clouds seen in earths
atmosphere SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Temperature increases with height (1500 - 2500°C)
Thermosphere No clouds exist Temperature increases with height ( °C) Coinciding with the lower portion of the thermosphere is the 'Ionosphere’ at 100 to 600 km delimited on the basis of ionized particles Above the ionosphere, the portion is called 'Exosphere' till the edge of space ( km) SABER : NASA's TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics Dynamics) Mission. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Aurora An ‘aurora’ is an electro-static phenomenon occurs in ionosphere Characterized by a bright glow in the night sky, particularly in the polar zone Caused by the collision of charged particles (solar wind particles) in the with atoms (O2, N) in the Earth's upper atmosphere Oxygen emissions Green or brownish-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed. Nitrogen emissions Blue or red. Blue if the atom regains an electron after it has been ionized. Red if returning to ground state from an excited state. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Montreal Protocol The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone by agreeing to limit the production and use of ozone-depleting substances, phasing out of ozone-depleting substances and helping the developing countries to implement use of alternatives to CFCs. To-date, more than 175 countries have signed the Montreal Protocol. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989.
The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan
The treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Production of ozone-depleting substances in EEA member countries
European Economic Area Source: European Commission 1999b; UNEP, 1998 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an internationally and legally binding agreement. The major feature of it is to set binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The reductions amount to an average of 5% against 1990 emission levels over the five year period from The main difference between the Protocol and the Convention is that the Convention encourages industrialised countries to stabilise their emissions whereas the Protocol commits them to actually do it. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The Kyoto Protocol is administered and regulated by an international treaty linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Most countries within the UNFCCC joined the treaty and ratified Kyoto over a decade ago. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The 3 Kyoto Mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol offers its members three different mechanisms to help meet there targets. These are known as; Emissions Trading The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Emissions Trading It allows for an industrialised country to express its allowed emissions or assigned amounts within the treaty as 'assigned amount units' (AAUs). As a result countries that have unused units can then trade them with other countries who have surpassed their own allowances and require additional units. Since carbon dioxide is the principle GHG, most people now refer to it as trading carbon within a carbon market. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialised countries to meet their emission targets/levels through investment and/or co-operation in a emission reduction project in a non industrialised country or developing country. This gives industrialised countries greater flexibility in terms of the best way that they can meet their overall targets. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Joint Implementation (JI)
The mechanism known as Joint Implementation allows for emission reduction units (ERUs) to be earned by one industrialised country from a project in another industrialised country. An example of this may be the sharing of new technology and/or foreign investment in a emissions reduction project. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

State of the Atmosphere
We commonly express the state of the atmosphere by measuring it using the following variables: Pressure Temperature Wind Humidity Cloud cover Precipitation type and amount Visibility (distance one can see horizontally) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

What is Weather and Climate?
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular time and a particular place Weather is what changes from hour to hour, day to day or month to month. Example: the temperature at Hyderabad today at 7 p.m Climate Climate is a complex system involving the sun, oceans, atmosphere, land surfaces, ice, and plant & animal life. Both natural forces and human changes influence the behaviour of this system. Climate is the long-term state of the atmosphere at a particular location “Normal” conditions is simply a 30-year average of that particular variable Examples of climate information would be: The Temperature at Hyderabad on December is 33 degrees. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Seasons in India climate is a cycle of six seasons.
3 predominant seasons, namely the summer season, the rainy season and the winter season With a approximate duration of two months each. Different climatic factors are accountable for the seasonal changes taking place within India. Spring (Mid February to April) Summer (May to June) Monsoon (July to September) Autumn (September to Mid-November) Pre-winter Mid-Nov to December Winter (Mid-December to Mid-February) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Climate change Periods of Earth warming and cooling occur in cycles.
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Periods of Earth warming and cooling occur in cycles. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

1910-1940 – a phase of warming. 1940-1975 – a phase of cooling.
Medieval Warm Period Little Ice Age. This period was characterized by harsh winters, shorter growing seasons, and a drier climate. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHNAGE
Causes of climate change The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories those that are due to natural causes and those that are created by man. CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHNAGE NATURAL Continental drift Volcanoes The earth's tilt Ocean currents Solar variations HUMAN Deforestation Population Explosion Industrialization SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Tectonic Causes Landmass distribution: Shifting continents (continental drift) causing changes in circulatory patterns of ocean currents. It seems that whenever there is a large land mass at one of the Earth's poles, either the north pole or south pole, there are ice ages. Undersea ridge activity: "Sea floor spreading" (associated with continental drift) causing variations in ocean displacement. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Ocean Currents: the warm surface currents (red) intertwine with the deep cold currents (blue), creating climate patterns across the Earth. (Robert Simons/Nasa) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

84 % of the “heat” is taken up by the global ocean itself, and this can cause a lot of problems for the animals living therein, as their environment begins to change. The world ocean has experienced a net warming of 0.06° C to a depth of 3,000 m during the past 35 to 45 years. More than half of the increase in heat content has occurred in the upper 300 m, which has warmed by 0.31° C. Warming is occurring in all ocean basins and at much deeper depths than previously thought. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Uneven distribution of sun’s energy
Ocean Current movements SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Global Measurements NASA's Earth Science Enterprise has placed into orbit several satellites to monitor the Earth's ecosystem. Studying the oceans, NASA scientists are using TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite data to learn how heat from the Sun is transported around the globe by ocean circulation patterns. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

PAN, or photochemical, smog
Smog is a combination of ozone, carbon monoxide, PAN, and organic molecules. PAN—peroxyacetylnitrate—is produced in the atmosphere by the action of sunlight on the chemicals present in urban areas. PAN has a very unpleasant odor. Smog precursor chemicals include volatile organic compounds (VOCs, or basically hydrocarbons), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and sulfur oxides. Because the complex chemical reactions of the constituents in smog with sunlight create fairly large particles. When sunlight scatters from very small particles such as molecular oxygen or nitrogen, it scatters more in the blue than the red, creating Earth’s beautiful blue sky and reddish sunsets. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

But when it scatters from large particles, such as water droplets, the
scattering is not selective, and they appear as white clouds. Smog consists of fairly large particles that scatters sunlight nonselectively, similar to the way clouds scatter sunlight, but not so densely. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Pollutants in Photochemical Smog
Ozone Production at low altitudes NOx from exhaust gases Ozone production is dominant when NO2/NO is greater than 3 Effects of Ground Level Ozone Damage to crops Irritates the respiratory tract and eyes High levels of O3 results in chest tightness, coughing and wheezing Increased hospital admissions and premature death SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Carbon based molecules (aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons) Short- and long-term adverse health effects Sources Paints; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays; cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and air fresheners etc. Health Effects Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches; damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

PAN Important contributor to photochemical smog
Secondary pollutant-formed from other pollutants by chemical reaction Contributor to production of groundlevel ozone, by transporting NOx Powerful respiratory and eye irritants and toxic Higher concentrations lead to damage of vegetation SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Harmful Effects of SMOG
smog creates immediate problems that everyone will experience. Smog can irritate and inflame pulmonary membranes, causing chest pains, coughing, and throat irritation. Other illnesses such as colds and pneumonia can also be brought on by exposure to smog. People with asthma problems are under an even greater threat. Even minor exposure to smog may cause these people to get asthma attacks It can cause anything from minor pain to deadly diseases such as lung cancer. Smog slowly ruins people's lungs to an extent as great as that of cigarettes. Agriculture is also hurt by smog. Soybeans, wheat, tomatoes, peanuts, lettuce, and cotton are all subject to infection when exposed to smog. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The sulfur and nitrogen dioxides found in smog alter the pH level of
ground-level air, resulting in the precipitation of acid rain. This toxic chemical shower hinders the process of plant respiration known as photosynthesis, making vegetation more vulnerable to pesticides, insects and erosion. Not only does smog damage the existing plants, but it also alters the delicate organic balance of soil, stunting plant and tree growth and reproduction. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Classification of Natural Resources
Contents Classification of Natural Resources Water Resources Mineral Resources Energy Resources Land Resources SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

NATURAL RESOURCES Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively natural form. Air we breathe, Water to drink Land to live Food for growth SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3 63

Classification of Resources
On the basis of origin, the natural resources Living Resources: All Living Natural resources like birds, animals Non – Living Resources: All non-living resources like ocean full of water, wind energy, sun, metals like iron, aluminium, gold, etc. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Based on the availability, natural resources are divided into
(a) Inexhaustible Resources Present in unlimited quantities on earth Eg: Water, wind, sun (b) Exhaustible Resources Present in limited quantities. Coal, oil ,gas SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Renewable & Non-renewable Resources
On the basis of Replenishability: Renewable : Resources have the ability to reappear or replenish themselves by recycling, reproduction or replacement. E.g.: Oxygen in air is replenished through photosynthesis. Fresh water is replenished through water cycles. Biological products include wild life and natural vegetation of all kinds. They are replenished through natural cycles of growth and reproduction. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Non-renewable Resources
It exists in a fixed amount that cannot be re-made, re-grown or regenerated as fast as it is consumed and used up. Often fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum natural gas , and Gold SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

WATER RESOURCES Introduction Use and over utilization of
surface and ground water FLOODS DROUGHT Dams: Benefits & problems SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Introduction The economy, agriculture and industrial growth of mankind is largely dependent on water resources Infact, ancient civilizations flourished along perennial surface water like streams and rivers SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Of the total water available Oceans and salt lakes 97.6%
Distribution of Water 90% of the earth is covered by water Of the total water available Oceans and salt lakes 97.6% Freshwater constitute 2.4% If we look at freshwater alone Trapped in ice and snow 87% Available as liquid water 13% Of the total available liquid water (13%) Groundwater constitutes 95% Lakes, rivers and streams 03% Soil moisture % Therefore, only about 0.1% of the world’s freshwater is accessible 71 71 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Use and Overuse Water is a vital natural resource which forms the basis of all life. Water is needed to fulfill diverse Domestic requirements. Aquaculture has come up as a very potent industry. For generation of Hydroelectric Power. In industrial processes viz., a raw material, solvent, chemical reactant, coolant, and cleaning agent. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Use of Fresh Water SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Hydrological Cycle 75 75 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Ground Water Groundwater is the source of about 90% country's drinking water. In rural areas, groundwater is the only source for water and more than one-third of our 100 largest cities depend on it. Rain water move downward and get stopped when the water meets rock that has no porosity. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Aquifer A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable (porous) and contains water is called an aquifer. This causes saturation of water in the soil and the zone is called saturation zone. The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is called the water table. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

However, groundwater is becoming contaminated with industrial effluents discharged on land and septic systems, as well as illegal and uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Once contaminated, groundwater is difficult, if not impossible, to restore. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Groundwater Over utilization
Groundwater abstraction from aquifers faster than natural recharge causes a ‘cone of depression’ in the water table This may dry up nearby wells Over utilization also allows aquifers to collapse followed by sinking of the groundwater surface Overuse of freshwater allows salt water intrusion into aquifers used for domestic and agricultural purposes in coastal areas SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Surface waters are available as a result of precipitation.
Precipitation that doesn't seep into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration is called surface water. Rain drops and snow flakes reach to surface of the earth It forms streams, ponds, ocean, lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

In china it takes 1000 tonnes of water to produce one tonne of wheat.
water required to grow a tonne of grain = manufacture a tonne of most industrial materials (e.g., metals or plastics, etc.). World water council believes that by 2020, we shall need 17% more water than is available to feed the world. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Human impacts We pollute ground and surface water so that it is no longer safe to use. Common pollutants include: chemicals, such as fertilizers and other farm runoff oil and gas from cars, trucks and underground storage tanks sewage from septic tanks or untreated sewer air pollution that becomes dissolved and falls in rain (or snow) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Major Rivers in India Ganga (or the Ganges) originates in the Himalayas at Gaumukh (13,858ft). SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Annual Rainfall of india

FLOODS Floods occur when water from heavy rainfall, melting ice or snow, tsunamis or a combination of these, exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving river system. It is a natural process SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Floods occur when soil and vegetation cannot absorb all the water;
water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried in river channels or retained in natural ponds and constructed reservoirs held behind dams. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Floods damage property, cause soil erosion and endanger the lives
Failure of levees and dams and inadequate drainage in urban areas can also result in flooding. Floods damage property, cause soil erosion and endanger the lives SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Flooding may deposit as much as 0
Flooding may deposit as much as 0.4 inches (1 cm) of sediment a year on a flood plain Floods throughout Asia in 1998 killed 7,000 people, damaged more than 6 million houses and destroyed 25 million hectares of cropland in Bangladesh, China, India and Vietnam In 2005, the remarkable flooding by Hurricane Katrina, caused more than $200 billion in losses, constituted the costliest natural disaster in U.S. history SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Flood Control Measures
Reforestation Construction of dams, reservoirs, and floodways (artificial channels that divert floodwater) Defenses such as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

DROUGHT ‘Deficiency of rainfall over a period of time, resulting in a water shortage for some activity, group or environmental sector’ ‘Dryness due to a deficiency of precipitation and is related to the climatic conditions in a specific environment’ SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Environmental impacts
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT Economic impacts Lower crop yields, Spend on irrigation, Digging wells, loss of livestock Environmental impacts Forest fires, Soil erosion, Loss of habitat Loss of endangered species SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Social impacts Conflicts between people
Mental and physical stress on people due to economic losses Health problems related to low water flows Threat to public safety from an increased number of forest and range fires Reduced incomes Population migrations from rural to urban areas Fewer recreational activities Loss of Human life SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

DAMS – Benefits and problems
Dam is the barrier constructed across a stream or river to impound water and raise its level. Dams - Benefits To concentrate the natural fall of a river at a given site; To generate electricity; To direct water from rivers into canals ,irrigation and water-supply systems; To increase river depths for navigational purposes; To control water flow during times of flood and drought; To create artificial lakes for recreational use. The first dam was built about 4000 BC to divert the Nile in Egypt in order to provide a site for the city of Memphis. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

submergence of large area of land (human settlement) soil erosion
Environmental Impacts of Large dams - Problems loss of vegetal cover submergence of large area of land (human settlement) soil erosion Resettlement and rehabilitation problem of displaced people. variation in water table and enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water. Salts left behind by evaporation increase salinity of the river and makes it unusable. The nature and magnitude of the impacts vary with the project locations and the conditions therein. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources
Introduction Use and Exploitation Environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources Case studies SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Introduction Minerals are naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds, formed through inorganic processes They are exhaustible, non-renewable resources found in the earth's crust More than 3,000 mineral species are known. However, only 200 minerals are put to economic use They are characterized by chemical composition crystalline structure physical properties SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

India is endowed with significant mineral resources.
India produces 89 minerals out of which 4 are fuel minerals, 11 metallic, 52 non-metallic and 22 minor minerals. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Introduction Minerals are not evenly distributed in the world
Therefore, each country is dependent upon other countries for the requirement of certain minerals India has large reserves of iron, manganese, lime stone, dolomite, silica, and mica But it has little reserves of copper, gold, silver, lead and phosphate Even for NPK fertilizers, India is dependent upon foreign countries 98 98 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Classification of Minerals
1. Metals 2. Industrial Minerals 3. Construction Materials The study of minerals is called ‘Mineralogy’ 99 99 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

I. Metals Precious Metals Gold Silver Platinum (b) Steel Metals Iron
Nickel Cobalt 100 100 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

(c) Base Metals Copper Lead Tin Zinc (d) Light metals Magnesium
Aluminium 101 101 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

(e) Nuclear Metals Uranium Radium Thorium (f) Special Metals Lithium
Germanium Arsenic 102 102 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

II. Industrial Minerals
Quartz Trona Salt Potash Asbestos Feldspar Sulphur Phosphates 103 103 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

III. Construction Materials
Sand Gravel Brick clays Limestone Shale Granite Travertine Marble collectively known as dimension stones 104 104 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Uses of Minerals Minerals have always been important after their uses were discovered Mineral wealth reveals a country’s economy and their ability to sell or create products For example, The USA became the richest and the most powerful nation in the world in even less than 200 years, due to huge mineral and energy resources Minerals have many uses. They are: Gold Gold is mostly used for making ornaments Gold could be hammered into thin sheets that could be made into useable items without fear of breaking or rusting 105 105 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Table 2.1 Important uses of some of the major metals
Major World Reserves Major Uses Aluminium Australia, Guinea, Jamaica Packaging food items, transportation, utensils, electronics Chromium CIS, South Africa For making high strength steel alloys, In textile/tanning industries Copper U.S.A., Canada, CIS, Chile, Zambia Electric and electronic goods, building, construction, vessels Iron CIS, South America, Canada, U.S.A. Heavy machinery, steel production transportation means Lead North America, U.S.A., CIS Leaded gasoline, Car batteries, paints, ammunition Manganese South Africa, CIS, Brazil, Gabon For making high strength, heat-resistant steel alloys Platinum group South Africa, CIS Use in automobiles, catalytic converters, electronics, medical uses. Gold South Africa, CIS, Canada Ornaments, medical use, electronic use, use in aerospace Silver Canada, South Africa, Mexico Photography, electronics, jewellery Nickel CIS, Canada, New Caledonia Chemical industry, steel alloys 106 106 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Major Minerals of India
India has large number of economically useful minerals India also produces 75% of the worlds Mica Coal and lignite: West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P, A.P ,TN Uranium (Pitchblende or Uranite ore): Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer). Aluminium (Bauxite ore): Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P, Tamilnadu. Iron (haematite and magnetite ore): Jharkhand, Orissa, Bihar, M.P, A.P, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa. Copper (Copper Pyrites): Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, M.P, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Gold Mines: Ramagiri field in Andhra Pradesh, Kolar and Hutti in Karnataka. Diamond belt: Panna diamond field in district of Panna , Chatarpur. And Satna in MP, and some parts of Banda in UP Petroleum deposits are found in Assam and Gujarat, Bombay, Assam, Tripura, Manipur, WB, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh. 107 107 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Exploitation The ever increasing demand of the limited mineral deposits and over exploitation may exhaust them within a few decades 108 108 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

S.No Resources Years to Depletion 1 Aluminium 31 2 Chromium 95 3
Copper 21 4 Iron 93 5 Lead 6 Manganese 46 7 Mercury 13 8 Molybdenum 34 9 Nickel 53 10 Silver 11 Tin 15 12 Tungsten 28 Zinc 18 109 109 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Environmental Effects
Any civilization could not exist without mining because it is the only way to obtain mineral resources Without mining, for example, we could not have sources for new metals However, mining practiced without critical safeguards can have dangerous effects to individuals and environment Exploration: Drilling & sampling Loss of vegetation Noise pollution Road trailing Habitat loss Mining operations disrupt ecosystems and may destroy the habitat of many species. For instance, about 350 tons of soil, rock and vegetation must be removed from an area to produce only 1 tonne of copper This process destroys the native biodiversity and makes an area vulnerable to land degradation by erosion and pollution 110 110 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Mining and Milling - Ore extraction, crushing /grinding of ore, chemical concentration of ore.
wind borne dust, acid generation from waste rock, heavy metal leaching from acid mine drainage Mining leads to severe water, air and land pollution Many drainage waters from mining areas have high sulfate and iron concentrations When exposed to air, pyrite and ferrous sulphide in coal seams produce sulphuric acid Plants can be seriously affected in areas with waste water contaminated by copper, nickel, lead and zinc mines Such waste discharges may also kill the decomposers and reduce the soil fertility There are also impacts on aquatic life. One recent study found that mine discharges contain selenium, a chemical harmful in high doses accumulates in fish downstream That might also pose a risk to humans who eat the fish 111 111 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Smelting & and Refining
Processing of mineral concentrate by heat or electro-chemical processes Use of toxic chemicals for processing Sulphur dioxide emissions contribute to acid rain Require high energy 112 112 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Mine Closure Waste dumps Dismantling of buildings
Surface water contamination Revegetation failure Wind pollution Improperly disposed fuel drums 113 113 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

CASE STUDIES 1) Jaduguda Uranium Mine, Jharkhand—-exposing local people to radioactive hazards (2)Jharia coal mines, Jharkhand —underground fire leading to land subsidence and forced displacement of people (3) Sukinda chromite mines, Orissa—seeping of hexavalent chromium into river posing serious health hazard, Cr6+ being highly toxic and carcinogenic (4) Kudremukh iron ore mine, Karnataka—causing river pollution and threat to biodiversity (5) East coast Bauxite mine, Orissa—Land encroachment and issue of rehabilitation unsettled (6) North-Eastern Coal Fields, Assam—Very high sulphur- contamination of groundwater 114 114 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Uranium Mining in Nalgonda
Uranium reserves in Jaduguda mines, Jharkhand supplied the yellow cake until 2004 There is a pressing need for mining more uranium to meet the demands of India's nuclear programme Uranium Corporation Of India Limited (UCIL) will invest Rs. 20 billion (US$ 460 million) to open new mines and set up processing plants in Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Meghalaya UCIL proposes to mine uranium from the deposits in Lambapur and Peddagattu villages of Nalgonda district in Andhra Pradesh and a processing unit at about 18 kms at Mallapur The plan is to extract the ore of million tons in 20 years. 115 115 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The proposed mines are just 1 km from human habitation
A uranium processing plant is to be set up at Seripally village in Deverkonda Mandal in Andhra Pradesh at estimated cost of Rs million (US$ 124 million). The UCIL is trying its best to allure the villagers through employment opportunities The proposed mines are just 1 km from human habitation hardly 10 km from Nagarjuna Sagar Dam barely 4 km from the Akkampalli reservoir which is Hyderabad's new source of drinking water The proposed mines would cover about 445 ha of Yellapurum Reserve Forest and the Rajiv Gandhi Tiger Sanctuary It is estimated that 20 years of mining would generate about 7.5 million metric tones of radioactive waste of which 99.9% will be left behind Though IUCL claims that there won't be any such accidents, it is a highly hazardous industry and safety measures cannot be overlooked Environmentalists formed as Movement Against Uranium Project (MAUP), are resisting the government's moves to set up a uranium mining and processing plant Activists said the mining would lead to radon emissions and would affect Hyderabad, Vijayawada and Khammam The exposure to the radioactive gas would result in genetic deformities in babies The fate of the proposed mining is yet to be decided 117 117 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Man induced landslides
LAND RESOURCES Introduction Land as a resource Land degradation Man induced landslides Land use /land cover mapping SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

About 30 % of the total land mass in under forests
Land as a Resource Land forms about one fifth of the earth's surface covering about 13,393 million hectares About 36.6 % of the land area is occupied by human dwellings, factories, roads, railways, deserts, mountains, rocks, glaciers and polar ice marshes About 30 % of the total land mass in under forests About 22 % of land is occupied by meadows and pastures Only 11 % of land is suitable for ploughing Soil is an organized mixture of minerals, organic matter, living organisms, air and water Soil is formed by two processes (i) Weathering- breaking down of rock into small particles (ii) Pedogenesis- maturation of soil through development of humus The study of soil is called Pedology (Gk. pedion = ground, logos = discourse) It deals with the origin, formation and geographic distribution of the soil SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Agricultural practices Industrialization
Causes: Deforestation Overgrazing Agricultural practices Industrialization The main causes of soil degradation differ in various continents Europe: Deforestation Agriculture Africa: Overgrazing North America: Agriculture Australia New Zealand: Overgrazing Other factors include Soil erosion Salinization of soils Acidification due to leaching of soluble bases Deposition of salt due to floods Developmental activities such as construction of dams, roads, railways, urban encroachment, mining SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Lithosphere - GEOLOGICAL LAYERS
Earth is stratified into layers When the Earth was molten: • Heavy elements (Fe, Ni) sank to center • Light elements (Si, Al, Na, K, Mg) floated to surface Three compositional layers formed: Crust Mantle Core SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Lithosphere It is the top crust of the earth on which the continents and ocean basins rest. The lithosphere forms only 3/10th of the total surface of the earth. It is thickest in the continental regions with an average thickness of 40 km ; thinnest in the oceans where it has a maximum thickness of 10 to 12 km. it contains organic matter and supports biological activities. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Plate SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Plate Tectonic Theory African North American South American Eurasian
Explains “How the Earth works Earth's outermost layer, the Lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called plates: African North American South American Eurasian Australian Antarctic Pacific Several minor plates also exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

The plates move in different directions and speeds
2 cm to 10 cm per year Place where the two plates meet is called a Plate boundary Boundaries have different names Crashing : Convergent Boundaries Pulling apart : Divergent Boundaries Sideswiping : Transform Boundaries SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Convergent boundaries
Oceanic Plates Ocean and Continental Plates Continental Plates Convergent boundary of two oceanic plates creates an Island arc or a Trench Convergent boundary of an oceanic plate and a continental plate forms a Volcanic mountain range and Trench Convergent boundary of two continental plates forms a Folded mountain range SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Divergent Boundaries Divergent boundaries occur when plate are rifted apart and begin to move apart, creating large expanses of oceanic crust. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Transform-fault boundary
Transform-fault boundary where the North American and Pacific plates are moving PAST each other SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

200 Million Years Ago 50 Million Years Ago 150 Million Years Ago
Present SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

ROCKS AND MOUNTAINS Granite Lime stone Marble

Rock Types Rocks are conglomerations of minerals and form the bulk of the Earth Rocks are classified based on their origin I. IGNEOUS ROCKS from molten rock called magma Eg., Granite II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS by weathering of rocks Eg. Lime stone, Sand stone III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS formed due to Changes in temperature, pressure, and chemistry of igneous and sedimentary rocks Eg., Marble The approximate volume proportions of these three rock types throughout the Earth’s crust are: igneous 65% metamorphic 27% sedimentary 8% SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Rock Cycle Fundamental concept in geology
Describes how each type of rock is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions Driving forces of the rock cycle Plate tectonics Water cycle Due to these forces rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they encounter new environments SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Mountains Produced by the movement of tectonic plates
The compressional forces, uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upwards Creates a landform higher than the surrounding features The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

As a whole, 24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous
Glaciers Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity depends on mountains for water SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Some Exquisite mountains
Mount Damavand, Iran Karakoram, Pakistan Pilot Mountain, NC, US Mount Kailash Table Mountain, Cape Town SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/3

Global Environmental Problems and Global Efforts
SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 Global Environmental Problems and Global Efforts UNIT-5 P. Ravindra Babu, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Biotechnology, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology

Contents Global Warming Greenhouse effect Green House Gases (GHG)
SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5 Global Warming Greenhouse effect Green House Gases (GHG) Sea Level Rise Climate change and impact on human environment Ozone Depletion Deforestation and Desertification International Conventions/Protocols Earth Summit Kyoto Protocol Montreal Protocol

GLOBAL WARMING Definition: Global warming is an increase in the Earth's temperature due to the use of fossil fuels and other industrial processes leading to a build-up of "greenhouse gases" (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere. These gases (CO2, CH4, N2O and CFCs) are radiatively active gases because they can absorb long wave infrared radiation. The atmospheric cover around the earth acts like a window glass pane. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

It allows most of the solar radiation (short wave length energy ) to enter right up to the earth's surface, but does not allow a substantial amount of the long-wave radiation (heat) emitted by the earth to escape in space. The outgoing longwave infrared radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases normally present in the atmosphere. This is known as Green House Effect. There is concern that increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide and other trace greenhouse gases due to human activities will enhance the green-house effect and cause 'global warming'. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The warming trend over the last 50 years (0
The warming trend over the last 50 years (0.13°C per decade) is nearly twice the rate for the last 100 years. Temperatures in the atmosphere and in the oceans (to depths of at least 3000m) have also been rising, along with water vapor content of the atmosphere. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Average Global Temperature by Decade, 1880-2004
Average Temperature Degrees Celsius 13.82 13.69 13.74 13.79 13.91 14.02 14.05 13.98 13.94 14.01 14.26 14.40 14.59 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

S. No. Gases Major sources
1. C02 Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, respiration. 2. CH4 Wetlands, anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes, termites. 3. N20 Natural soils, fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion. Photochemical reactions in troposphere, transport (diffusion) from stratosphere. CFC Manufacturing of foams, aerosol propellant. CFC-12 Refrigerant, aerosol propeltent, manufacturing of foams. CFC-113 Electronics solvent. 8., HCFC-22 Refrigerant, production of fluoropolymers. CH3CC13 Industrial degreasing solvent. CC14 Intermediate in production of CFC-11, CFC-12, solvent. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Graphs of the rise in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Global Average Temperatures

Major sources of greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide: CO2 is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The level of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased from the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm to about 368 ppm in The CFCs persist for 45 to 260 years or more in the atmosphere. The relative contribution of different greenhouse gases to global warming. Year CO2 Cone, (ppm) Temp, rise (°C) Sea-level rise (cm) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Melting of Glaciers SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Ozone layer depletion The ozone layer, is the part of the Earth's atmosphere and contains ozone (O3). It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from approximately 40 km to 45 km above Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G
Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958 Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations which continues to operate today. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the total amount of ozone in a column overhead, is named in his honor. The average thickness of the atmospheric ozone layer at any place varies from month to month, but is generally between 260 and 330 DU. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Ozone Layer Depletion SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Chloroflourobcarbons (CFCs), contribute to the thinning of the ozone layer

The concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (315- to 400-nm) , UV-B ( nm) , and UV-C. UV-C, which would be very harmful to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 km altitude. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

However it is interesting to note that ozone gas is a pollutant at lower levels and cause severe problems like oedema, hemorrage etc. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

These radicals catalytically destroy ozone, converting it into oxygen.
CFCs, CH4 and N2O escape into the stratosphere and cause destruction of O3 there. Most damaging is the effect of CFCs, which produce "active chlorine" (Cl and CIO radicals) in the presence of UV-radiation. These radicals catalytically destroy ozone, converting it into oxygen. CH4 and N2O also cause ozone destruction through a complicated series of reactions. For making these discoveries related to O3 destruction, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, along with Paul Crutzen, were honoured with Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica.
Ozone hole : During the period , the spring-time O3 layer thickness above Antarctica varied from 280 to 325 Dobson Unit (1 DU = 1 ppb). The thickness was sharply reduced to 225 DU in 1979 and to 136 DU in 1985. The ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The decline ozone layer thickness is termed Ozone hole.
Later, the O3 layer thickness continued to decline to about 94 DU in 1994. The decline ozone layer thickness is termed Ozone hole. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

To-date, more than 175 countries have signed the Montreal Protocol.
The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone by agreeing to limit the production and use of ozone-depleting substances, phasing out of ozone-depleting substances and helping the developing countries to implement use of alternatives to CFCs. To-date, more than 175 countries have signed the Montreal Protocol. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989.
The treaty was opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan
The treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those substances must be phased out and eventually eliminated. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Phase-out Management Plan Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402; CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride; 1,1,1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Production of ozone-depleting substances in EEA member countries
European Economic Area Source: European Commission 1999b; UNEP, 1998 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Earth Summit The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, Earth Summit), held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 3 June to 14 June in 1992. It was held twenty years after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) took place in Stockholm, Sweden. established the principles for reducing greenhouse gas emission. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Government officials from 178 countries and 30,000 individuals from governments, non-governmental organizations, and the media participated in this event. To discuss solutions for global problems such as poverty, war, and the growing gap between industrialized and developing countries. The central focus was the question of how to relieve the global environmental system through the introduction to the paradigm of sustainable development. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

It enunciating 27 principles of environment and development, Agenda 21
Agreement on the operating rules Statement of principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests, Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, and United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity were products of independent, but concurrent, negotiating processes that were opened for signatures at UNCED. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Agenda 21, the international plan of action to sustainable development, outlines key policies for achieving sustainable development that meets the needs of the poor and recognizes the limits of development to meet global needs. Agenda 21 has become the blueprint for sustainability and forms the basis for sustainable development strategies. It attempts to define a balance between production, consumption, population, development, and the Earth's life-supporting capacity. It addresses poverty, excessive consumption, health and education, cities and agriculture; food and natural resource management and several more subjects. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an internationally and legally binding agreement. The major feature of it is to set binding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The Protocol was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and PATMAN entered into force on 16 February 2005 SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The reductions amount to an average of 5% against 1990 emission levels over the five year period from The main difference between the Protocol and the Convention is that the Convention encourages industrialised countries to stabilise their emissions whereas the Protocol commits them to actually do it. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The Kyoto Protocol is administered and regulated by an international treaty linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Most countries within the UNFCCC joined the treaty and ratified Kyoto over a decade ago. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The 3 Kyoto Mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol offers its members three different mechanisms to help meet there targets. These are known as; Emissions Trading The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Joint Implementation (JI) SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Emissions Trading It allows for an industrialised country to express its allowed emissions or assigned amounts within the treaty as 'assigned amount units' (AAUs). As a result countries that have unused units can then trade them with other countries who have surpassed their own allowances and require additional units. Since carbon dioxide is the principle GHG, most people now refer to it as trading carbon within a carbon market. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Clean Development Mechanism allows industrialised countries to meet their emission targets/levels through investment and/or co-operation in a emission reduction project in a non industrialised country or developing country. This gives industrialised countries greater flexibility in terms of the best way that they can meet their overall targets. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

Joint Implementation (JI)
The mechanism known as Joint Implementation allows for emission reduction units (ERUs) to be earned by one industrialised country from a project in another industrialised country. An example of this may be the sharing of new technology and/or foreign investment in a emissions reduction project. SNIST/Biotech/Ravindra/ES/5

UNIT – 3 Environmental Chemistry

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